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final Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the parts of the cell cycle?

A

1) Interphase
2) Cell Division

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2
Q

What happens during interphase?

A

This is where the cells spend the most time and perform their normal function or job: Gap 1, S phase, and Gap 2

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3
Q

Gap 1

A

Cell growth

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4
Q

S phase

A

DNA replication

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5
Q

Gap 2

A

Cell growth and preparation for division

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6
Q

What happens during cell division (m phase)

A

Mitosis, cytokinesis

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7
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

Identical copies of DNA attached together to make a chromosome
Only exist after DNA replication after S phase

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8
Q

What is a centromere

A

The middle of a replicated chromosome

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9
Q

What is a telomere

A

The ends of the chromosomes

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10
Q

Prophase

A

DNA condenses into chromosomes
Centrioles moves to the opposite “poles” of the cells and send out spindle fibers
Nuclear envelope breaks down and nucleolus disappears

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11
Q

Metaphase

A

All the chromosomes are lined up across the equator (center) of the cell
Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes
Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles

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12
Q

Anaphase

A

Sister chromatids break apart and are now called daughter chromosomes
Daughter chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibers
Spindle fibers that aren’t attached to chromosomes elongate the cell

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13
Q

Telophase

A

Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell and begin to decondense
Nuclear envelope begins to reform and spindle fibers break down

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14
Q

What is cytokinesis

A

Cell splitting

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15
Q

What is meiosis

A

Cell division that produce daughter cells called gametes

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16
Q

What is the product of meiosis

A

4 haploid cells (half the chromosomes)
Also a possibility of swapping of genetic material between homologous pairs

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17
Q

Random alignment in meiosis

A

Chromosomes line up at the equator randomly, meaning that the chromosomes from mom and dad can be mixed up in the gametes

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18
Q

What is the genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism (alleles)

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19
Q

What is the phenotype

A

An observable trait (visual appearance)

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20
Q

Dominant vs recessive

A

An allele can be either dominant or recessive

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21
Q

What is a dihybrid cross

A

Two trait cross
Filled out by determining the gametes of both parents using the foil method

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22
Q

What is incomplete dominance

A

Neither allele is dominant over the other
Offspring’s appearance is a blend between the phenotypes of the 2 parents

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23
Q

What is codomiance

A

Neither allele is dominant over the other
Both alleles are expressed at the same time and a mixture is observed

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24
Q

What is multiple allelism

A

More than 2 alleles possible for a given gene

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25
Blood types
A, B, AB, or O Two blood types can be dominant in order to make a combination of co-dominant blood types
26
Universal Receiver
AB
27
Universal Donor
O
28
What are sex-linked genes
Genes that are located on the X chromosome
29
What are sex-linked traits
Recessive traits, meaning that both x chromosomes must have the gene in order for the trait to be expressed
30
What do pedigrees do
Study how a trait is passed from one generation to the next
31
What is the structure of DNA
Two antiparallel strands running in opposite directions held together by hydrogen bonds and nucleotides held together by covalent bonds
32
What are the nucleotides in DNA
5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose Phosphate group Nitrogenous base
33
What is the base pairing
A and T= 2 hydrogen bonds G and C= 3 hydrogen bonds
34
What is the history of DNA
1) Rosalind Franklin used a technique call x-ray diffraction 2) Watson and Crick built models of potential DNA structures and were able to determine it was a double helix
35
What is the purpose of DNA replication
New copy of DNA for every cell
36
What does DNA being semiconservative mean
1 parent strand and 1 new strand
37
Enzymes in DNA replication
Helicase, primase, polymerase, and ligase
38
Helicase
Breaks hydrogen bonds between strands
39
Primase
Makes RNA primer
40
Polymerase
Adds nucleotides to the new strand 5'-3'
41
Ligase
Creates covalent bonds between nucleotides to connect fragments
42
What is the leading strand
Strand of DNA being replicated continuously
43
What is the lagging strand
The strand of new DNA whose direction is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork
44
What is transcription
The cell makes mRNA copies of genes that are needed
45
Where does transcription occur
Nucleus of eukaryotes
46
Key parts of transcription
mRNA- carriers information from a gene in DNA RNAP- the enzymes that reads DNA to make mRNA RNA polymerase- moves along the gene unwinding the DNA and creating a complementary strand of RNA
47
What is translation
The mRNA is read by the ribosomes to make proteins
48
Where does translation occur
The cytosol, cytoplasm, or rough ER
49
Key parts of translation
mRNA- carries information from a gene in DNA ribosome- binds mRNA and tRNA to link amino acids tRNA- a type of RNA that matches amino acids to specific sequences of mRNA
50
Reading the code
Every group of 3 mRNA/DNA bases encodes a single amino acid, called a codon
51
What are the types of mutations
Insertion- adding one or more nucleotides Deletion- removing one or more nucleotides Substitution- changing a single nucleotide for another Point- Affects only one nucleotide
52
Effects of mutations
Silent mutation- the nucleotide change still encodes the same amino acid Missense mutation- replaces the original amino acid with a different amino acid Nonsense mutation- replaces the original amino acid with a stop codon Frameshift- caused by the insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not divisible by 3, this disrupts the reading frame
53
What is gene regulation
It can change the expression of a gene by turning the gene on or off, down or up
54
What are activators
Proteins that increase gene expression
55
What are repressors
Proteins that decrease gene expression
56
Evidence of evolution
The Earth is old and constantly changing Populations cannot grow unchecks Species vary globally, locally, and over time
57
Charles Darwin vs Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Descent with modification Inheritance of acquired traits
58
Natural selection
Caused by natural forces
59
Artificial selection
Caused by humans
60
Process of natural selection
Variations (mutations in genes) in traits exists in populations Traits that increase fitness are called adaptations The next generation will have more of the fitter trait
61
Founder effect
Occurs when a small sample of a larger population establishes a new population
62
Population bottleneck
When a large population is reduced randomly such as a natural disaster
63
Biological species concept
A group of individuals that in nature can interbreed and produce fertile offspring but cannot reproduce with members of other species
64
Prefertilization barriers (prezygotic)
Spatial- separated in space Behavioral- mating rituals Mechanical- sex organ incompatibly Temporal- timing of mating season Gamete incompatibility- proteins on the egg prevent sperm from binding
65
Allopatric speciation
Speciation that occurs in different locations
66
Sympatric speciation
Speciation that occurs in the same location
67
Biotic vs abiotic
Alive vs not alive
68
Levels of organization
Species, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere
69
Population density
How many individuals live in an area (individuals/area)
70
Population distribuations
Uniform, random, clumped
71
Exponential growth
Populations have unlimited resources
72
Logistic growth
Population has limited resources
73
What are the interactions during symbiosis
Mutualism- both species benefit Commensalism- one species benefits the other in unaffected Parasitism- one species benefits the other is negatively affected
74
Food webs
Show many interconnected paths Arrows point in the direction of energy flow
75
Trophic levels
The amount of energy decreases at each level Each level is only 10% of the previous Less animals as you move up the food chain
76
Nutrient cycle
The movement and exchange of key nutrients among biotic and abiotic factors
77
Pathogens
Anything foreign to the body that causes disease, such as viruses, bacteria, mold, mildew
78
Innate immunity
Defense that you are born with, They are present all the time and affects many pathogens
79
Adaptive immunity
Are gained over time as you are exposed to new pathogens. Develops a defense that is specific to the pathogen
80
Lymphatic system
A series vessels that move through the tissues of the body. It drains, cleans, and returns fluid (lymph) back to the tissues
81
B cells
Recognize intact antigens that are on the surface of pathogens or circulating freely in body fluids
82
T cells
Recognize fragments of antigen displayed on the surface of an infected cell
83
Arteries
Blood vessels that take blood AWAY from the hearts To the body= oxygenated From the hearts to the lung= deoxygenated
84
Veins
Blood vessels that take blood TOWARD the heart From the body to the heart= deoxygenated From the lungs to the heart= oxygenated
85
Types of Animal Respiration
Skin- entire body surface Gills- extensions of the body surface Tracheae- Branching internals tubes Lungs- localized internal organs

honors bio (5 decks)

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