FINAL Flashcards
(204 cards)
1
Q
trade off between internal/external validity
A
basic dilemma
2
Q
people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
A
misattribution of arousal
3
Q
research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised
A
cross-cultural research
4
Q
assumption that bad things happen to bad people, good things happen to good people
A
belief in a just world
5
Q
two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals influence each other
A
group
6
Q
attitude based more on people’s feelings/values
A
affectively based attitude
7
Q
unjustified negative/harmful action toward someone based solely on group membership
A
discrimination
8
Q
any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
A
process loss
9
Q
explaining contradictory behavior as due to something in the situation or environment
A
external justification
10
Q
when people feel empathy toward another person, they attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons
A
empathy-altruism hypothesis
11
Q
information about the relative frequency of members of different categories in the population
A
base rate information
12
Q
say that moral decisions maximize outcomes for the most people, even if some are harmed
A
utilitarian thinkers
13
Q
in many cultures, male sex role includes helping in chivalrous and heroic ways, whereas female sex role includes helping in close, long-term relationships
A
gender differences
14
Q
one is subjected to weak persuasive attempts, which allows one to develop counters
A
attitude inoculation
15
Q
perception that those in the outgroup are more similar to each other than is the case
A
outgroup homogeneity
16
Q
thought that is non conscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless
A
automatic thinking
17
Q
experiencing dissonance in relationships when you feel close to someone who outperforms you in an area central to your self esteem
A
self evaluation maintenance theory
18
Q
must first experience physiological arousal, then we must seek an appropriate explanation or label for it
A
two factor theory of emotion
19
Q
people show preference to in-group members over out-group members
A
in-group favoritism
20
Q
the tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how soon they will complete a project, even when they have failed to get similar projects done on time in the past
A
planning fallacy
21
Q
the anxiety created when people are judged solely as a group member, not an individual
A
social identity threat
22
Q
expectations from stereotypes are not necessarily valid in and of themselves; people will tend to seek out confirmatory evidence
A
expectancy confirmation
23
Q
theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors (usually through culture)
A
causal theories
24
Q
helping is self-interested; end state is increasing helper’s own welfare
A
egoism
25
examine accumulated documents, archives, or a culture
archival analysis
26
implicit rules for acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs
social norms
27
the discomfort people feel after making a decision, not the conflict felt before deciding
post-decision dissonance
28
acting in a way that contradicts your private beliefs
counterattitudinal behavior
29
statistic that asses how well you can predict one variable from other (-1 to +1)
correlation coefficient
30
venting one's anger or watching other behave aggressively would serve to "get it out of your system" and make people less likely to behave aggressively themselves
catharsis
31
the process of explaining to the participants, at the end of the experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired
debriefing
32
a number that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable
probability level (p-value)
33
tendency to think that others are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are
bias blind spot
34
people help when cost/benefit equation allows it
social exchange
35
the idea that social groups with altruistic members are more likely to survive in competition with others
group selection
36
conforming because you believes others know the correct action
informational social influence
37
based on thoughts/beleifs about an attitude object
cognitively based attitude
38
strength of the association between an object and an evaluation of it
attitude accessibility
39
does the person usually behave like this in this situation
consistency
40
explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors
self-serving attribution
41
experiments conducted in natural settings rather than a lab
field experiments
42
helping those genetically close to you; aids in passing on related genetic material
kin selection
43
people lern about their own abilities and attitudes by comparing themselves to others (upward or downward)
social comparison theory
44
An increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon
weapons-effect
45
misleading participants about the true purpose of a study of the events that transpire
deception
46
an outcome to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but are important to the other side
integrative solution
47
stimulus that elicits an emotional response is accompanied by a neutral, nonemotional stimulus, and eventually the neutral stimulus elicits the emotional response by itself
classical conditions
48
creating dissonance by having people make statements contrary to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency
hypocrisy induction
49
self knowledge, self control, impression management, self esteem
self serves 4 functions
50
form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
negotiation
51
studies designed to solve a particular social problem
applied research
52
technique whereby a researcher observes people and records measurements or impressions of their behavior
observational method
53
one's interpretation, perception, or comprehension of the social situation
construal
54
tendency for people to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, worse on simple tasks better on complex tasks important to them
social loafing
55
the variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable (variable you measure)
dependent variable
56
starting with a huge request that will be refused, then asking for what you really want
door-in-the-face
57
a judgement strategy where one adjusts their answer based on a starting value
anchoring/adjustment
58
does the person's behavior occur only in this situation
distinctiveness
59
searching for/processing information in ways consistent with pre-existing beliefs
confirmation bias
60
1. characterization: we make internal attribution (automatic)
2. correction: we consider situational factors (controlled)
two step attribution process
61
process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept
priming
62
desire to engage in an activity because they enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressure
intrinsic motivation
63
using flattery or praise to make yourself likable to another, often a person of higher status
ingratiation
64
method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
ethnography
65
focusing on and affirming competence in areas unrelated to the threat
self affirmation theory
66
mental structures that organize our knowledge about the social world
schemas
67
concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
task-oriented leaders
68
the reward depends on how well people perform the task
performance-contingent reward
69
mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been
counterfactual thinking
70
specific predictions about when and how people would change their attitudes
cognitive dissonance theory
71
two ways persuasive communications can cause attitude change
elaboration likelihood model
72
any act performed with the goal of benefitting another person
prosocial behavior
73
people have the motivation and ability to pay attention to a message
more logically compelling = more persuasive
central route to persuasion
74
what people approve/disapprove of
injunctive norms
75
behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment
operational conditioning
76
when companies and other legal institutions are permitted - or socially encouraged - to discriminate on the basis or race, gender, or other categories, prejudice will seem normal
institutional discrimination
77
people devise ready-made excuses in case they fail
reported self-handicapping
78
the belief that your own culture, nation, or religion is superior to all others is called
ethnocentrism
79
behavior is a function of a person and their environment
B = f(P,E)
80
how people explain the causes of behavior
attribution theory
81
ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long term goals
self-control
82
beliefs about others --> actions toward others --> behaviors from others (cycle)
self-fulfilling prophecy
83
people don’t like feeling that their freedom to do or think whatever they want is being threatened
reactance
84
people's specific about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptations
implementation intentions
85
type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particular the ways in which objects relate to each other
holistic thinking style
86
harm through manipulating relationships
relational aggression
87
research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behaviors
surveys
88
the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of the mind and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world
accessibility
89
a group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines
institutional review board
90
deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior
propaganda
91
groups with which they identify as a member and discriminate against members of out-groups
in-groups
92
the belief that achivement is the result of hard work, trying new strategieis, seeking input from others
growth mindset
93
when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
self-perception theory
94
overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes
self concept
95
leadership effectiveness depends both on how task oriented or relationship oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
contingency theory of leadership
96
a way to try and establish cause
true experiments
97
the effectiveness of a persuasive communication depends on the aspects of the communicator, source of message, content of message, or aspects of audience
yale attitude change approach
98
if minimal data, tend to make internal attribution
if data, then it depends on the environment-behavior consistency
attributional patterns
99
a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, be harmful to everyone
social dilemma
100
the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
theory of planned behavior
101
frustration always produces aggression ... and aggression is always the result of frustration
frustration-aggression hypothesis
102
we learn social behavior, from aggression to altruism, in large part by observing others and imitating them
social cognitive learning theory
103
the variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable (variable you manipulate)
independent variable
104
way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people and recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
independent view of the self
105
say that there are some absolute moral truths and nothing that violates one of these truths could be considered moral
deontological thinkers
106
when people view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, such as reward, making them underestimate the extent to which their behavior was caused by intrinsic reasons
overjustification effect
107
people have low motivation or ability
swayed by surface characterisitcs (attractiveness)
peripheral route to persuasion
108
all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment
random assignment to condition
109
inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
transformational leaders
110
groups with which they do not identify
out-groups
111
scientific study of how thoughts, behaviors, and emotions are influenced by the presence of other people, real or imagined
social psychology
112
when people's desires to engage in an activity is because of external rewards or presures, not because they enjoy the task
extrinsic motivation
113
indirect aggression harming another through gossip, character assault, damage to property, or interference with goal achievement
symbolic aggression
114
qualities of a group that bind members together and promote mutual liking
group cohesiveness
115
the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations
altruistic personality
116
certain kinds of contact in certain situations can reduce prejudice
contact hypothesis
117
process whereby we deny another human their full humanity
dehuminization
118
feeling obligated to reapy actions in kind
reciprocity
119
a mental structure that organizes one's knowledge about the world
schema
120
making sure the independent variable is the only thing influencing the dependent variable
internal validity
121
a mental "shortcut" that allows judgments to be made quickly
heuristics
122
where after people know something occurred, they exaggerate how much they could have predicted it
hindsight bias
123
type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context
analytic thinking style
124
based on past behaviors or behavioral intentions
behaviorally based attitudes
125
attitudes that we are aware of an can report
explicit attitudes
126
the belief that one's construals reflect objective reality
naive realism
127
disguised version of the study's true purpose
cover story
128
to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we note the pattern between when the behavior occurs and the prescence or absence of possible causal factors
covariation model
129
loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified
deindividuation
130
showed people change behavior in response to authority, administering what they thought were dangerous shocks
milgram study
131
looking inward to examine the "inside info" that we (only) have about our thoughts, feelings, motives
introspection
132
the more bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any of them are going to help the victim
bystander effect
133
the tolerance earned over time by conforming, allows occasional deviation without serious consequences
idiosyncrasy credits
134
attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious evaluations
implicit attitudes
135
if you put urban dwellers in a calmer, less stimulating environment, they would be as likely as anyone else to reach out to others
urban overload hypothesis
136
when we are focused on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to our internal standards and values
self-awareness theory
137
words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may influence people's judgements, attitues, behaviors
subliminal messges
138
studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity
basic research
139
category concepts unwarrantedly assigned to most members of a group stereotypes
stereotypes
140
people are rewarded for simply doing a task, regardless of the quality of their performance
task-contingent rewards
141
the decreasing amount of compassion people feel towards victims of mass casualties compared to a single individual who has suffered a tragedy
compassion collapse
142
behaviors that are on their face positive but are rooted in women being "less than"
benevolent sexism
143
prosocial behavior is not necessarily rooted in our genes
social exchange theory
144
any behavior intended to inflict physical harm or psychological distress on someone or something
aggression
145
getting a small agreement first, then asking for more
foot-in-the-door
146
bystander's sense of responsibility decreases when the amount of witnesses increases
diffusion of responsibility
147
seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention
perceptual salience
148
two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them
correlational method
149
the ability to experience vents/emotions the way another person experiences them
empathy
150
aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself
hostile aggression
151
researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable
experimental method
152
antipathy towards women
hostile sexism
153
tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
social facilitation
154
people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true
self-fulfilling prophecy
155
aggression as a means to a nonaggressive
instrumental aggression
156
set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
transaction leaders
157
the desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper
altruism
158
certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the nature of the situation the leader faces
great person theroy
159
testosterone only relates to dominance behaviors when the stress hormone, cortisol, is low
dual-hormone hypothesis
160
strategy where people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
self-handicapping
161
theory is developed, scientific hypotheses derived from theory are tested, based on the results, the theory is revised and new hypotheses are formed
theory refinement process
162
evaluations of people, objects, or ideas
attitudes
163
average the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable
meta-analysis
164
reducing dissonance by changing something about yourself
internal justification
165
prejudice is the result of competition for scarce resources
realisitic conflict theory
166
do other people behave that way in that situation
consensus
167
the attempt by people to get others to see them the way they want to be seen
impression management
168
the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future
norm of reciprocity
169
the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for resisting something desirable
insufficient punishment
170
agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advanced
informed consent
171
beahvior change resulting from a direct request
compliance
172
repeating a study (different setting and population)
replications
173
shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
social roles
174
the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
fixed mindset
175
concerned more with workers' feelings and relationships
relationship-oriented leaders
176
behavior change due to direct influence of an authority figure
obedience
177
people think everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way when they actually aren't
pluralistic ignorance
178
the combination of excessive self-love and lack of empathy toward others
narcissism
179
likelihood of responding to social influence depends on strength, immediacy, and number
social impact theory
180
perceptions of how people actually behave, regardless of approval
descriptive norms
181
mental shortcut we use to classify something according to how similar is is to a typical case
representativeness heuristic
182
conforming to be liked and accepted
normative social influence
183
a tendency to favor members of one's own groups
in group bias
184
measures the speed of people's positive and negative associations to a target group
implicit association test
185
subtle daily slights, snubs, or insults - intentional or unintentional- which communicate negative or hostile messages towards members of marginalized groups
microaggression
186
testosterone and aggression are only related when opportunities for reproductions are high
challenge hypothesis
187
the discomfort caused when two cognitions conflict, or when behavior conflicts with attitudes
cognitive dissonance
188
the subjective experience of a phenomenon is more psychologically important than the objective reality of the phenomenon
gestalt roots
189
people act in ways that reduce the likelihood that they will succeed on a task so that if they fail, they can blame it on the obstacles they created rather than their lack of ability
behavioral self-handicapping
190
the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people
external validity
191
basing a judgment on the ease with which you can bring something to mind
availability heuristic
192
the extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
psychological realism
193
message advocating a particular side of an issue
persuasive communication
194
a variable that accounts for the correlation between variables of interest
extraneous third variables
195
self-esteem serves as a buffer against terrifying thoughts about death
terror management theory
196
a hostile/negative attitude towards people in a group based solely on group membership
prejudice
197
an individual or minority can influence the majority's behavior or beliefs
minority influence
198
thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
controlled thinking
199
changing behavior due to real or imagined influence of others
conformity
200
way of ensuring that the sample of people is representative of a population at large
random selection
201
found people sometimes gave wrong answers to match the group
asch line judgment
202
intentionally not doing something in which you might otherwise engage in order to hurt someone or something
passive aggression
203
Frustration produces a readiness to aggression ... which will lead to aggression if the situation supports it
berkowitz revision
204
when the combined memory of a group is more efficient than the memory of its individual members
transactive memory
