Final Exam Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
4 types of tissue in the body
A
- epithelium
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
2
Q
epithelial cells
A
- sheets of cells that cover, protect, and line body surfaces and cavities
- substance/parenchyma within organs
- control permeability/ absorb + secrete
- sensory receptors
- glandular
- regenerate fast
- avascular: rely on blood vessels for nutrients and O2
3
Q
cellularity of epithelial cells
A
-high cellularity (numerous cells stacked and layered)
4
Q
polarity of epithelial cells
A
- ends of cells are different
- apical surface is free and exposed to cavity
- basolateral surface is anchored
5
Q
epithelial cells are classified by…
A
- number of layers (simple or stratified)
- type or shape of cells (squamous, cuboidal)
6
Q
epithelial cells are attached by 3 junctions
A
- tight junctions:form top band for selective permeability
- desmosomes:flexible and strong for contracting cells
- gap junctions: allow for rapid flow btwn neighboring cells
7
Q
simple vs. stratified epithelial cell arrangements
A
- simple: cells arranged one layer deep
- stratified: cells arranged 2 or more layers, stacks on top of each other
8
Q
types/ shapes of epithelial cells
A
- squamous: fried egg or thin (kidney)
- columnar: long touching rows (GI tract)
- cuboidal: stacks like bricks/ sea anemones (tubule walls)
- transitional: rounder, able to expand, changing size (urinary bladder)
9
Q
distinct qualities of connective tissue
A
- sparse cells
- fibers
- have ground structure
10
Q
connective tissue proper
A
- loose connective tissue
- dense connective tissue
11
Q
specialized connective tissue
A
- cartilage
- bone
- blood
12
Q
loose connective tissue
A
- areolar (regular connective)
- adipose (fatty)
- reticular (dense, but w/ground substance)
13
Q
dense connective tissue
A
- dense regular
- dense irregular
- elastic
14
Q
3 types of fiber in connective tissue
A
- collagenous
- reticular
- elastic
15
Q
elastic fibers in connective tissue
A
- made of protein elastin
- stretchable, elastic
- ex. vocal chord, bladder
16
Q
reticular fibers in connective tissue
A
- made of protein collagen
- thin, delicate, branched, hold shape
- ex. liver, glands
17
Q
collagenous fiber in connective tissue
A
- made of protein collagen
- in thick, strong, long bundles, wavy
- ex. artery
18
Q
cells of the epidermis (a stratified squamous epithelium)
A
- keratinocytes
- melanocytes
- langerhans
- merkel
19
Q
layers of keratinocytes (outer to inner)
A
- stratum corneum
- stratum lucidum (thicker skin only)
- stratum granulosum
- stratum spinosum
- stratum basale
- “can long giraffes still bend?”
20
Q
dermis
A
- directly under epidermis
- contributes to majority skin strength
- houses hair follicles, nerves, blood vessels, lymph vessels, glands, smooth muscle
21
Q
hair growth cycle (drawn out)
A
- anagen: growth phase, attached to blood supply
- catagen: transition phase, just detached from blood supply
- telogen: resting phase, detached from dermis, sticking out (brushed out easily)
22
Q
arrector pili muscles
A
- attached to hair follicles
- when contracted, cause hair to stand straight up, “goosebumps”
23
Q
epidermal layers of the hood
A
- same as skin, just modified for function
- highly keratinized and hard, but flexible
- horse: solipeds
- ruminants, swine: cloven (split)
24
Q
laminitis
A
- damaging inflammation of laminar/ laminae tissue
- painful crippling disease
- horse or cow leans back to compensate
25
laminae
- attach hoof wall with third phalanx bone
| - dermis layer
26
founder
- result of uncontrolled laminitis
- called "rotation" or "sinking"
- P3/ coffin bone/ distal phalanx goes through sole of hoof
27
nervous system is structurally/anatomically divided into ______ and ______
- central nervous system
| - peripheral nervous system
28
central nervous system
-brain and spinal cord
29
peripheral nervous system
- nerves that stem off of the brain and spinal cord
- supply limbs and organs
- "cranial nerves"
30
afferent nerve impulses
- travel towards the CNS
| - sensory neurons
31
efferent nerve impulses
- travel from CNS out towards the periphery
| - motor neurons
32
nervous system is divided functionally into _____ and ______
- somatic
| - autonomic
33
somatic nervous system
- voluntary motor activity
- neurons supply sensations animal is consciously choosing or reflexing to something
- can be either sensory (reacting to receptors consciously perceived by brain) or motor (controlled by brain)
34
autonomic nervous system
- neurons carrying impulses initiated automatically, below conscious recognition
- subconscious "house keeping functions"
- ex. pupil size, heart rate, body temp regulation
35
how do the central and peripheral nervous systems work together?
- peripheral system picks up on the changes and events inside and outside the body and sends info to CNS
- info received at brain and spinal cord, analyzed, memorized, decisions made
- CNS commands response back out to periphery via motor nerves for actions to be executed
36
how nerves communicate
-action potential (also called nerve impulses or nerve signals)
37
glial cells
- support and protect neurons/nerve cells
- "neuroglia cells"
- greek for glue
- don't transmit or receive impulses
- majority weight of tissue, 10 glial per 1 neuron
38
2 types of neuroglia /glial cells are _____ and ______
- astrocytes
| - oligodendrocytes
39
astrocytes
- send extensions of self to wrap around the capillaries in tissue
- add extra barrier to wall of blood vessels so substance in blood cannot freely diffuse into brain tissue
- "blood-brain barrier"
40
oligodendrocytes
- send extensions of self to wrap around axons of neurons
- created isolating layer called myelin
- myelinate axons in the CNS
- X shape layers
41
schwann cells
- myelinate axons in the PNS
| - single layer like pool noodle
42
neurons receive impulses through their _____ and send impulses via _____
- receive through dendrites
| - send via axons
43
what is happening when neurons are actively firing
- neurons are generating and conducting action potential
| - at rest means they are not conducting an impulse
44
resting potential of a neuron
- ( -70 mV) inside axon
| - resting state
45
depolarization
- Na+ / sodium rush into cell
- charge becomes positive
- after hitting -55 threshold
46
action potential
- reaches 40
| - Na+ channels snap shut and K+ channels open
47
repolarization
- K+ / potassium rush out of the cell
- after reaching action potential at 40
- back to polarized, negative resting potential (first goes to state of refractory period below -70)
48
Na-K ATPase membrane pumps
- pumps actively keep cell polarized (neg) at resting -70 mV
- pump 3 Na+ ions out while 2 K+ in
49
threshold
- reaches -55 mV-channels snap open and Na+ rush into the cell (start depolarization)
- all-or-nothing principle bc if threshold is not met the action potential will not result
50
synapse
- how impulse travels from nerve to nerve or target
- neurotransmitters are released in synapse btwn nerve endings
- from axon to receptor site of dendrite
51
2 types of neurotransmitters
- excitatory
| - inhibitory
52
excitatory neurotransmitter
- cause Na+ influx
| - ex. acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses
53
inhibitory neurotransmitter
- hyperpolarize a cell
- make membrane potential more negative, away from threshold
- ex. glycine, GABA
54
temporal lobe
- underside of brain/ middle
- auditory processing
- language, hearing
55
occipital lobe
- back most, smaller part of brain
- visual interpretation
- vison
56
5 components of the axial skeleton
- cervical
- thoracic
- lumbar
- sacral
- coccygeal
57
forelimb / thoracic limb (proximal to distal)
- scapula
- humorous
- radius
- ulna
- carpals
- metacarpals
- phalanges
58
hind limb / pelvic limb (proximal to distal)
- pelvis
- ilium
- ischium
- pubis
- femur
- tibia
- fibula
- tarsals
- metatarsals
- phalanges
59
canine vertebral formula
```
C 8
T 13
L 7
S 3
Cd 20
```
60
equine vertebral formula
```
C 7
T 18
L 6
S 5
Cd 15-21
```
61
bovine/ cow vertebral formula
```
C 7
T 13
L 6
S 5
Cd 18-20
```
62
functions of bone
- support
- protection
- leverage
- storage
- hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)
63
tendons
- fibrous, strong connective tissue at each end of a muscle
| - connects muscle to bone
64
aponeurosis
-fibrous connective tissue arranged in broad sheets
65
ligament
-fibrous tissue that connects bone to bone
66
why is muscle striated (cardiac and skeletal)
- allow body to move by repeated contraction and relaxion
- "sacro"
- overlay of actin and myosin
67
levels of organization of muscles (bone to outer to inner)
- bone connects to tendon that connects to the muscle
- epimysium
- perimysium (wrap around fascicles)
- fascicles
- endomysium (between fibers)
- muscle fiber (cell)
- [myofibril]
- [sarcomere]
68
chemistry of muscle contraction
-ADP and P released from myosin head when pulled back against actin
69
5 white blood cells/ leukocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
- monocytes
- lymphocytes
70
neutrophils
- balloon animals/ darker segs
| - 1st line defense by eating/phagocytosis of bacteria (puss)
71
eosinophils
- darker wishbone middle
| - allergic or inflammatory responder (asthma)
72
basophils
- darker w balloon animals, but many dots around it
| - synthesize and store granules (histamine, heparin)
73
monocytes
- darker deformed heart shaped middle
| - develop into macrophages for inflammation
74
lymphocytes
- darker large round eyeball nucleus
- fight infection in lymph organ and tissue
- 4 subclasses
75
layers of the heart wall (outer to inner)
```
-pericardium
~fibrous pericardium
~serous pericardium (parietal layer)
SPACE (float in fluid)
~serous layer (visceral layer)
-myocardium (muscle layer)
-endocardium (inner endothelial lining)
```
76
internal conduction system of the heart (left to right/ top to bottom)
- muscle cells in heart send signals to heart muscle to tell it to contract
- SA node (pacemaker bc cells fire faster here)
- AV node (conduction pauses to allow atria to contract before ventricles)
- bundle of His
- purkinje fibers
77
cardiac cycle
-each sequence of contraction (systole, closed AV valves) and relaxation (diastole, open AV vales)
78
lub-dub
- lub: S1, closure of 2 AV valves
| - dub: S2, closure of the 2 seminar valves (pulm and aortic)
79
2 modifications designed to allow blood to bypass lungs
- foramen ovale
| - ductus arterioles
80
foramen ovale
- flap between R and L atria
- enables blood flow directly from RA to LA
- allows blood bypass of lungs
81
ductus arteriosus
- channel that connects pulmonary artery to aorta
- enables blood flow directly from PA to aorta
- allows blood to bypass lungs and directly into systemic side of circulation
82
segments of the vascular tree (from aorta to vena cava)
- artery
- arterioles
- capillaries
- venules
- veins
83
vasoconstriction
- arterioles get smaller from cold and sympathetic dominance
- increases blood pressure
84
vasodilation
- arterioles get larger when hot or stimulated by fight or flight (why blood rushes to fingers)
- why applying cold then hot increases circulation in injury healing
85
upper respiratory tract path
- nostrils (nares)
- nasal passages
- paranasal sinuses
- pharynx and larynx
- trachea
86
lower respiratory tract path
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveoli (areolar sacs)
87
exchange of gases in alveoli
- CO2 goes into the alveoli / air sac from the vein
| - O2 goes from the alveoli into the vein
88
pneumothorax
- leaking air into pleural cavity from negative vacuum pressure (where fluid attaches lungs to inner heat wall)
- lungs collapse or are re-expanded by chest tube
89
partial pressure
- pressure generated by oxygen, nitrogen, ad CO2
| - calculate each pressure individually based on % O2, N2, CO2 multiples by overall pressure of that
90
partial pressure in alveolar lumen
P O2 = 100 mm Hg
| P CO2 = 40 mm Hg
91
partial pressure in alveolar capillaries
P O2 = 40 mm Hg
| P CO2 = 45 mm Hg
92
mechanical control of breathing
- stretch receptors in lung that fire when lung is close to max inspiration
- respiratory centers in medulla oblongata send impulses down motor neurons to cease contraction in muscles
- lung then enters expiratory cycle
93
chemical control
- if pH is low or CO2 is high chemoreceptors fire impulses from respiratory centers down motor neurons to respiratory muscles to breathe at a faster rate w/more volume
- peripheral chemoreceptors in aorta, carotid artery, and brainstem sense changes in blood or tissue pH, O2 or CO2
94
pulmonary capillaries vs. systemic capillaries
- pulmonary: circulation of blood between heart and lungs (to originate blood)
- systemic: circulation of blood between heart and rest of body
95
products of the anterior pituitary gland
- GH
- BST
- ACTH
- TSH
- FSH
- MSH
- prolactin
96
products of the posterior pituitary gland
- oxytocin
| - antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
97
GH
- growth horomone
| - regulates cell's metabolism of proteins, lipids, carbs
98
BST
- bovine somatotropin
| - anabolism causes higher milk production in cows
99
prolactin
-induces and maintains lactation in females
100
ACTH
- adrenocorticotropic hormone
| - stimulates growth of adrenal gland cortex
101
TSH
- thyroid stimulating hormone
| - stimulates growth of thyroid gland
102
FSH
- follice stimulating hormone
- stimulates Goth of ovarian follicles in women
- stimulates spermatogenesis in men
103
MSH
- melanocyte-stimulating hormone
| - needed in color changing reptiles
104
ADH
- anti-diuretic hormone
| - actually produced by the hypothalamus
105
oxytocin
- actually produced by the pituitary gland
- targets mammory glands
- induces milk let down
106
peripheral endocrine organs
-thyroid
-adrenals
-parathyroid
-pancreas
etc.
107
hyperthyroidism
- cat, humans
- ravenous appetite
- unkept hair
- always hot from moving nonstop
- hyperactive so weightless
- tachycardia
- Graves disease in humans (scary eyes)
108
hypothyroidism
-dogs, humans
-seek heat, always cold
-hair loss
weight gain
-sad face
109
endocrine alopecia
- hypothyroid and hyper secretion of cortisol
| - Cushings disease
110
layers of the wall of the stomach and intestine (outer to inner)
- serosa
- muscle layer
- submucosa
- mucosa
111
carb/ CBH digestion in ruminants
- first contact with salivary amylase in saliva
- small intestine majority
- digestion of carbs produces monosaccharides
112
lipid digestion in ruminants
-4 step process starting in stomach
113
protein digestion in ruminants
-contact w pepsin in stomach
114
monogastric stomach (horse)
- esophogus/ cardia
- fundus
- body
- pyloric antrum
- pylorus
- duodenum
115
secretions of the small intestine
-hormones secretin and CCK
116
secretions of the pancreas
- beta cells secrete insulin
| - alpha produce glucagon
117
4 stages of urine formation
- glomerular filtration
- tubular reabsorption
- tubular secretion
- water conservation
