FINAL FOR A&P 1 Flashcards
1
Q
structures
A
anatomy
2
Q
functions
A
physiology
3
Q
what is the relationship between anatomy and physiology
A
difficult to separate; form follows function
4
Q
levels of organization
A
chemical (atoms- molecules) cellular (skin cells) tissue (epith) organ (kidney) organ system (digestive) organism (human)
5
Q
basic unit of life
A
cells
6
Q
the existence of a stable internal environment
A
homeostasis
7
Q
adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis
A
homeostatic regulation
8
Q
what will happen if homeostasis is not preserved
A
illness or death
9
Q
receives signals about changes in internal environment that causes response to reverse these changes back to the normal range
A
negative feedback ex. thermostat
10
Q
cells and cell products organized into layers of groups that perform a relatively limited number of fxs
A
tissues
11
Q
study of tissues
A
histology
12
Q
cover internal and external surfaces; forms glands
A
epith
13
Q
fill internal spaces and provide support for other tissues
A
connective
14
Q
provide movement via contractions
A
muscle
15
Q
conduct electrical impulses
A
neural
16
Q
2 types of cell arrangements found in epith
A
microvilli and cillia
17
Q
increases surface area for increase absorption and secretion
A
microvilli
18
Q
sweep substances along epith surface
A
cilia
19
Q
what is unique about transitional epith
A
transitions from thick to thin and back again as it stretches and recoils
20
Q
where is transitional epith found
A
urinary bladder
21
Q
collections of cells
A
glands
22
Q
secretes hormones directly into interstitial fluid and/or blood
A
endocrine ex. pancreas
23
Q
release secretions onto epith surfaces via ducts
A
exocrine ex. tears
24
Q
function of mucus
A
lubrication
25
one unicellular exocrine gland? what does it secrete
mucous (goblet) cells; secretes mucins that w h2o forms mucus
26
most common conn tissue cell; make components of ground substances and fibers
fibroblasts
27
engulf pathogens and damaged cells
macrophages
28
fat cells
adipocytes
29
stem cells to divide and differentiate into other conn tissue cells
mesenchymal cells
30
3 types of cartilage
hyaline
elastic
fibro
31
physical barriers; line or cover body surfaces
membranes
32
specialized for contraction and movement
muscle tissues
33
striated voluntary; produce gross body movements
skeletal
34
striated involuntary ; only in heart
cardiac
35
non striated involuntary ; around hollow organs
smooth
36
specialized for conduction of electrical impulses
neural tissue
37
how is skeletal muscle an organ
skeletal muscle tissue
conn tissue
nerves
blood vessels
38
```
produce skeletal movement
maintain posture and body position
support soft tissues
guard entrance and exits
maintain body temp
store nutrient reserves
```
fx of skeletal muscular system
39
bundle of fascicles
muscle fibers
40
continuation of collagen fibers of conn tissue coverings beyond end of muscle; cordlike
tendon
41
similar to tendon but is a broad sheet of ct that attaches a broad, flat muscle to another muscle or to several bones
aponeurosis
42
muscle fibers cell membrane
sarcolemma
43
cytoplasm
sarcoplasm
44
tubes continuous with sarcolemma and contain extracellular fluid and form passages ways thru the muscle fiber
t tubules
45
tubular network that cover each myofibril
sarcoplasmic reticulum
46
2 kinds of protein filaments found in myofibrils.
actin and myosin
47
thin filaments
actin
48
thick filaments
myosin
49
thin filaments slide toward center of sarcomere; alongside the thick filaments
sliding filament theory
50
all the muscle fibers controlled by one motor neuron
motor unit
51
what determines the size of the motor unit
how fine the control of movement can be
52
Which of these have all-or-none contractions? muscle fiber, motor unit, entire muscle?
muscle fiber
53
if it contracts at all it will contract completely
all or none
54
muscle shorten when contracted
isotonic
55
muscle contracts but doesn't change length
isometric
56
reuqires o2
aerobic metabolism
57
occurs in mitochondria
aerobic
58
occurs in sarcoplasm
anaerobic
59
end produces 2 atp
anaerobic
60
end produces 36 atp
aerobic
61
short term form of glucose
glycogen
62
how is glycogen used in the process of atp generation and storage
glucose turns into glycogen as needed
63
what causes lactic acid
mitochondria make as many atp as they can but isn't enough since theres not enough o2 to sustain aerobic metabolism
64
what happens when lactic acid accumulates
may inhibit muscles to continue contracting
65
what happens to lactic acid during the recovery period
turns into pyretic acid and then to glucose
66
where does the recovery period of a muscle occur
in the liver
67
amount of o2 needed to restore normal conditions
oxygen debt
68
Explain the significance of the heat that is produced with muscle contractions.
w increase activity more heat is released and body temp climbs
69
fast twitch fbers
fast fibers
70
white fibers
fast
71
slow twitch fibers
slow fibers
72
red muscle fibers
slow
73
why is slow red
more o2 to muscle fiber
74
muscle hemoglobin
myoglobin
75
where is myoglobin
in blood
76
cells are bound together and contractions move from cell to cell in a wave
peristalsis
77
immoveable/fixed end; usually connected to a bone
origin
78
moveable end
insertion
79
prime mover; muscle responsible for most of movement
agonist
80
muscle who's action oppose against; responsible for movement in opposite direction
antagonist
81
muscle that assist agonist; makes agonist more efficient
synergist
82
2 divisions of the nervous system
central and peripheral
83
brain and spinal cord
central ns
84
cranial and spinal nerves
peripheral ns
85
two types of effectors
muscles and glands
86
brings sensory info to cns from receptors
afferent division
87
carries motor commands from cns to effectors
efferent division
88
controls skeletal muscle contractions
somatic ns
89
provides automatic regulation of smooth muscle cardiac muscle and glands
autonomic ns
90
2 components of the efferent division
somatic and autonomic
91
What is unique about a neuron’s nucleus?
doesn't divide
92
short extensions from cell body and receives info from other neurons
dendrites
93
long slender cylindrical process w uniform diameter that conducts impulses away from cell
axon
94
poorly understood
anaxonic neurons
95
relay info about sight, smell, or hearing
bipolar neurons
96
carry info/senses into cns
unipolar neurons
97
control skeletal muscles
multipolar neurons
98
glial cell; supporting cells within nervous tissue
neuroglial cells
99
outnumber neuron cells
neuroglial
100
myelinate axons
| regulate interstitial environment
PNS of neuroglial cells
101
act as phagocytes
provide structural framework for neural tissue
help secrete and monitor composition of csf
control interstitial environment within cns
myelinate cns axon
CNS of neuroglial cells
102
Name the 2 types of neuroglial cells that myelinate axons
oligodendrocytes
| schwann cells
103
Describe how these neuroglial cells cover the axon. What do they form?
cell processes wrap themselves many times around axon to form many layers along the length of an axon
104
small gaps in axon covering between cells
nodes of ranvier
105
contrast the structure of white matter and gray matter in the CNS.
white matter is myelinated
| gray matter isn't
106
changes in the transmembrane potential that can't spread far from the site of stimulation
graded potentials
107
propagated changes in the transmembrane potentials that, once started, affect an entire membrane
action potential
108
nerve impulse
action potential
109
pushing handle down just enough action
threshold
110
which one if faster continuous or saltatory and why
saltatory because it is myelinated (doesn't hit every spot on the surface of the axon)
111
explain the role of calcium ions in a synapse.
enter the synaptic knob, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
112
chemicals released by one neuron to affect the transmembrane potential of another
neurotransmitter
113
2 classes of neurotransmitters
excitatory and inhibitory
114
causes depolarization and promote generation of action potentials
excitatory
115
causes hyper polarization and suppress generation of action potentials
inhibitory
116
2 enlargements of the spinal cord
cervical and lumbar
117
2 longitudinal grooves of the spinal cord
posterior mediam sulcus
| anterior median fissure
118
supplies nerves to shoulder and arms
cervical
119
supplies nerves to pelvis and legs
lumbar
120
how many segments in the spinal cord
31
121
what comes out of each segment in the spinal cord
spinal nerves
122
what is contained within a dorsal root ganglion.
cell bodies of these neurons
123
functions of the nerve roots from the spinal cord
form spinal nerves
124
how do the spinal nerves get out of the vertebrae
thru intervertebral foramen
125
what happens after the spinal nerves pass thru the vertebrae
branch and form peripheral nerves
126
provide physical stability
shock absorption
carrry bloode vessels to deliver nurtients and o2
spinal meninges
127
between bones and soft tissue of cord and brain
spinal meninges
128
very tough; epidural space
dura mater
129
middle layer; subarachnoid space
arachnoid mater
130
inner layer thats firmly bound to neural tissue underneath
pia mater
131
What is the subarachnoid space filled with and what is its function?
CSF; shock absorber and diffusion of nutrients
132
fluid that is within the central canal
csf
133
region of the skin surface thats monitored by a single pair of spinal nerves
dermatomes
134
damage or infection of a spinal nerve or dorsal root ganglion will produce a characteristic loss of sensation to its corresponding region of the skin
importance of dermatomes
135
complex interwoven networks of nerves
nerve plexus
136
rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli
reflexes
137
preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments in the fx of organs or organ systems
reflexes
138
those processed in spinal cord
spinal reflexes
139
those processed in brain
cranial reflexes
140
4 major brain regions
cerebrum
cerebellum
dicencephalon
brainstem
141
the 4 major parts of the diencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal
142
3 parts of the brain stem
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
143
4 connected chambers within cerebral hemispheres and brain stem
brain chambers
144
what are brain chambers filled with
csf
145
where CSF is located within the nervous system
between ventricles, central canal and subarachnoid space
146
cushions cns structures
supports brain
transports nutrients
csf
147
secreted by tiny masses of specialized neuroglial cells and capillaries; project into ventricles and empty
formation of csf
148
all communications between brain and spinal cord
medulla oblongata
149
centers that control respiratory rate and depth
pons
150
helps maintain consciousness and alertness
midbrain
151
secretes melatonin
pineal gland
152
secretes many hormones
pituitary gland
153
central relay point for incoming sensory info and channels them to appropriate regions of cerebral cortex for interpretation
thalamus
154
subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions
hypothalamus
155
controls heart rate
bp
respiration
digestive fxs
hypothalamus
156
establishes emotional states and expressions; links conscious intellectual fxs of the cerebral cortex with the unconscious
limbic system
157
largest region of the brain that has two cerebral hemispheres
cerebrum
158
thin blanket of gray matter that covers cerebrum
cerebral cortex
159
what hemisphere is the general interpretive area and speech areas found
left side
160
emotion
identification of objects
spatial visualization
right side
161
performs analytical tasks
general interpretive and speech centers
language based skills
left side
162
structures that allow the 2 hemispheres to “mix”.
corpus callosum and anterior commissure
163
how many cranial nerve pairs are there
12
164
adjusts our basic life support system (homeostasis) without conscious control
autonomic ns
165
Provide several examples of visceral effectors of the ANS
cardiac muscle
smooth muscle
glands
adipose tissue
166
2 divisions of ans
sympathetic
| parasympathetic
167
fight or flight
sympathetic
168
rest and digest
parasympathetic
169
2 types of receptors
general senses
| special senses
170
temp pain touch pressure vibration and proprioception
general senses
171
info sent to primary sensory cortex
general senses
172
olfaction vision gustation equlilbrium hearing
special senses
173
info sent to specific areas of cortex
special senses
174
reduction in sensitivity in the presence of a constant and painless stimulus
adaptation
175
difference between somatic and visceral receptors
difference of location
176
temp
thermoreceptors
177
pain
nociceptors
178
physical distortion
mechanoreceptors
179
chemical concentration
chemoreceptors
180
function of nociceptors
protection
181
Nocioceptors are sensitive to what 3 items
temp extremes
mechanical damage
dissolved chemicals
182
nociceptor adaptation
little to none peripheral adaptation (don't get used to pain)
183
2 chemicals released by the CNS in response to excessive pain.
enkephalins and endorphins
184
detect touch pressure and vibration
tactile receptors
185
detect pressure changes in blood vessels and portions of digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts
baroreceptors
186
monitor position of joints, tension in tendons and ligaments and the state of muscular contraction
proprioceptors
187
3 types of mechanoreceptors
tactile
baroreceptors
proprioceptors
188
sense of smell
olfaction
189
the location of the olfactory receptor cells
nose
190
Explain why olfaction is connected to emotions and memories
info to the hypothalamus and limbic system explains emotional and behavioral responses and memories triggered by certain smells
191
the effect of aging on olfaction
receptor number decreases and remaining receptors become less sensitive w age
192
sense of taste
gustation
193
6 taste sensations
```
sweet
salty
sour
bitter
umami
water
```
194
Explain why and which certain taste sensations are triggered more rapidly than others
threshold for stimulus varies; respond more to unpleasant than pleasant
195
effects of aging on taste
decrease taste buds
196
palpabrae
eyelids
197
blinking
eyelids
198
soft tissue in corner of eye that makes eye boogers
lacrimal caruncle
199
epith covering of inner surfaces of eyelids and outer surface of eye
conjunctiva
200
secretes tears
lacrimal apparatus
201
prevents bacterial infection via antibacterial enzymes
lysosome
202
decrease friction and remove debris
tears
203
3 layers/tunics of the eye
outer fibrous layer
intermediate vascular layer
inner neural layer
204
in the fibrous layer thats the white of the eye
sclera
205
fibrous layer thats the window of the eye
cornea
206
how the iris and pupil react to light
iris- controls light intensity
| pupil- opening that lets light pass through
207
inner lining of eyeball and has 2 layers
retina
208
Why is the fovea centralis the site of the sharpest vision?
no rods
209
Identify the structure and explain why we have a blind spot
optic disc; there are no receptors here
210
between cornea and lens and beside lens
anterior cavity
211
filled w aqueous humor
anterior
212
stabilizes shape of eye
posterior cavity
213
filled with vitreous humor
posterior
214
focus visual images on the photoreceptors via changing shape
acoomodation
215
lens loses transparency; becomes cloudy and opaque
cataract
216
one or more types of cones are nonfunctional
color blindness
217
very sensitive to light
rods
218
see only general outlines
rods
219
why only general outlines
rods nerve fibers converge and trasmit impulses to brain on same nerve fiber
220
sharp images and fine detail
cones
221
visual pigment
rhodopsin
222
in rod
rhodopsin
223
bright light
rhodopsin decomposes
224
dim light
rhodopsin is regenerated faster than its broken down
225
3 types of cone
red blue green
226
collects and directs sound waves
external ear
227
collect sound waves and transmit them
middle ear
228
contains sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium
internal ear
229
pinna
auricle
230
auditory canal
external acoustic meatus
231
eardrum; vibrates with incoming sound waves
tympanic membrane
232
glands in skin of external acoustic meatus
ceruminous glands
233
ear wax
cerumen
234
middle ear; permits equalization of pressures on either side of tympanic membrane
auditory tube
235
allow microorganisms into middle ear
otitis media
236
3 ossicles
malleus incus stapes
237
identify where, in the brain, equilibrium information is sent.
cerebellum and cerebral cortex
238
primary ossification center
central region
239
secondary ossification center
epiphyses
240
appositional growth
bones grow in width
241
skeletal muscle fibers
muscle cells
242
quite different than typical cell and are enormous
skeletal muscle fiber
243
neurotransmitter involved in muscle contractions
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