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Yr.12 Biology > Fossils, Bioengineering, Evolution > Flashcards

Fossils, Bioengineering, Evolution Flashcards

1
Q

Fossil

A

the preserved remains and traces of past life
They provide evidence of past life
these remains can be hard parts, such as teeth, bones and shells, or impressions in the rock where the organism’s tissue has decayed.

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2
Q

Palaeontology

A

study of fossils
Fossils shows that there has been a clear change over time from simple to very complex organisms, which is evidence of evolution

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3
Q

process of fossilisation

A

1. Organic matter quickly deposited and covered in sediments in an environment that lacks oxygen, preventing decomposition
2. Minerals from sediments replace the natural bone/shell material, hardening the fossil.
3. Organisms covered with sedimentary materials. Materials consolidate to form sedimentary rock
4. Long period of time

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4
Q

Principle of superposition

A

indicates that the oldest rock layer is found at the bottom of the rock, with each consecutive layer above being relatively younger

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5
Q

Transitional forms

A

the Arhaeopteryx was a small flying dinosaur with feathers.
It appeared in late Jurassic period
it shared features in common with both birds and reptiles.
Its reptile like features include a long tail, claws, no keel, solid bones, and teeth.
it bird like features include a wish-bone, feathers and reduced fingers.

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6
Q

Fossil dating methods

A

relative dating - used to determine age of the rock, or fossil contained in the rock, relative to other rocks or fossils found nearby. Strata are deposited in a time sequence with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on top. Paleontologists can assign relative ages to fossils based on the strata in which they are found.
Absolute dating - assigns a numerical age in years to a fossil or rock. 3 main types: radiometric dating, electron spin resonance and luminescence. Most common method of absolute dating is radiometric dating, which uses the known rates of decay of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes present in a rock or fossil.

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7
Q

Comparative anatomy

A

study of the similarities and differences in structure between different organisms.
Structural features are also called morphological features.
used to establish evolutionary relationships on the basis of the structural similarities and differences, including the comparative study of embryos

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8
Q

Pharyngeal slits

A

gill slits

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9
Q

Homologous structures

A

anatomical structures that are common to more than one species and were inherited from a common ancestor, but have different functions, are known as homologous structures.
Show the same structural plan but perform different functions due to the different species living in different selective pressures (conditions)

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10
Q

vestigial homologous structures

A

Homologous structures stemming from a common descent can eventually cease to have any functional use for an organism.
structure may not necessarily impede a particular adaptation of an organism, but at the same time the structure no longer serves a ‘useful’ purpose.
Can take a variety of forms, including bones, soft tissues, organs

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11
Q

Analogous structures

A

features of organisms that have the same function but not the same basic structure

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12
Q

Identification technologies

A

used to accurately trace the genetics of desirable traits and to pass those traits to other plants within a generation.
Can examine DNA of seeds to find the ones that will produce the best plants.

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13
Q

transformation

A

Taking a gene from one species and inserting it into another to obtain a desired characteristic.
Achieved through: recombinant DNA technology, transgenic organisms.

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14
Q

Transfer of genes

A

done through gene gun or viral vector

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15
Q

Reason to genetically modify

A

to produce more product
To make them model organisms for studying human disease and for discovering the functions of various genes
To build resistance (drought, chemicals, temperature)

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16
Q

Conservation biology

A

integrated study of ecology, physiology, evolution, molecular biology and genetics wt a view to sustaining biological diversity at all levels.
Biotechnology used for: monitoring endangered species, assessing gene pools for breeding programs, quarantine.

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17
Q

Biological diversity

A

3 levels: genetic, species, ecosystem diversity

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18
Q

Gene pool

A

collection of all the alleles for all genes in the reproducing members of a population at a given time

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19
Q

Conservation planning considerations

A

1. biogeography - if distribution of a species changes over time, helps determine whether or not an area needs active protection, restoration or management.
2. Reproductive behaviour - considered to avoid inbreeding and loss of advantageous alleles, gene pool diversity, and reproductive fitness.
3. Population dynamics - study of the number, gender, age and relatedness of individuals in a population. Directly affected by the number of births, deaths, immigrations and emigrations.

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20
Q

Environment DNA

A

(eDNA)
DNA left behind in an environment by an organism

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21
Q

quarantine

A

The isolation of organisms that have arrived from elsewhere or been exposed to an infectious or contagious disease.

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22
Q

Bioremediation

A

Consumption and breakdown of environmental pollutants by deliberately introduced or naturally occurring micro-organisms

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23
Q

biodegradation

A

Breakdown of an organic substance by micro-organisms such as bacteria through decomposition

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24
Q

superweed

A

A species of plant, transformed by a gene from a GMO to increase its growth rate, disease resistance or tolerance of environmental limits, that has become difficult to control.

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25
Q

GMO effects on genetic diversity

A

Effects on non-target organisms
rapid evolution of pesticide-resistant species
Possibility of gene flow from crop to weed
emergence of superweeds

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26
Q

Effects on non-target organisms

A

effect of GMOs on non-target not yet clear
Outcrossing - migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related species in the wild

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27
Q

pesticide resistant species

A

Eg. Roundup ready - pesticide using glyphosate. Weeds built up a resistance

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28
Q

Monoculture

A

the practise of growing a single strain or variety of crop in a particular area

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29
Q

Cloning

A

the process of making an identical copy of an original
2 contexts: gene cloning - involves using recombinant technology, Biological cloning - involves cloning an entire organism

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30
Q

Embryo splitting

A

egg cells removed from female and fertilised in Vitro by sperm.
After zygote divided, coat around both cells promoting cell division is removed.
both eggs are separated and own film is placed around them, promoting cell division.
Each egg then implanted into different women

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31
Q

nuclear transfer

A

Involves removing mature donor somatic cells from a mature animal and a recipient egg cell from another mature animal of the same species
donor cells are cultured in a nutrient medium before being inactivated, and the nucleus of the recipient egg cell is removed.
Intact nucleus from a donor cell is fused with the hollow egg from the recipient cow by an electrical impulse.
the new single-celled embryo is cultured for about a week, then cell division is activated and the developing blastocyst is surgically implanted into the surrogate mother.
The offspring is genetically identical to the nucleus donor

32
Q

evolution

A

The process of cumulative, inheritable change in a population over many generations

33
Q

phylogeny

A

Evolutionary relationships that exist between species.
expressed in a tree-like diagram

34
Q

Evidence for theory of evolution

A

1. Biogeography
2. Comparative genomics (genetics)
3. Fossil record (palaeontology)
4. Comparative embryology (developmental biology)
5. Comparative anatomy

35
Q

Geologic time

A

Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs
Time expressed as mya (millions of years ago)

36
Q

continental drift

A

Changes in the landmasses on Earth from one supercontinent called Pangea to the number of continents we have today, and their relative movements

37
Q

climate variation

A

Fossil track the climate variations throughout Earth’s existence

38
Q

Biogeography

A

Study of the distribution of organisms and ecosystems across the world and through geological time.
by looking at the pattern of these distributions today, and that of the fossils, we are able to reconstruct its evolutionary history.

39
Q

Genomics

A

study of the whole set of genes of a species and the interactions of the genes without a genome.

40
Q

Molecular homology

A

the identification of shared bimolecular elements - generally genes - used to test the closeness of relationships between organisms

41
Q

Taxon

A

named group of organisms

42
Q

Clade

A

group of organisms that includes all the descendant of a common ancestor and the ancestor species itself

43
Q

Relatedness

A

uses taxon and clade
A measure of the evolutionary distance between two species

44
Q

comparative genomics

A

Field of biological research in which researches use of variety of tools to compare the genome sequences of different species

45
Q

DNA-DNA hybridisation

A

Method used to analyse relatedness
can be unreliable when comparing closely related species
DNA extracted from 2 organisms, purified and wt into fragments
It is unwound and hydrogen bonds joining the two sugar-phosphate backbones are broken.
resulting single strands of DNA from the two organisms are mixed.
Some of the double-stranded DNA that forms contains DNA from each of the two species and is known as hybrid DNA.

46
Q

molecular phylogeny

A

The study of evolutionary relationships using comparative genomics

47
Q

phylogenetic tree

A

Represents evolutionary relationships between groups
tip - end of a branch, where a species/taxon name is found
Node - each point where two branches split
root - the last node
Branch - connects tip wt node

48
Q

convergent evolution

A

Unrelated organisms evolve similar adaptations in response to a similarity in their environments

49
Q

mineralisation

A

Minerals from the sediment have replaced the natural bone or shell material

50
Q

fossils can be formed from

A

Sedimentary materials
lava
Soft material
freezing and subsequent dehydration

51
Q

Principle of superposition

A

fundamental to the interpretation of Earth’s history
Principle - oldest rock layer is found at the bottom of the rock, with each consecutive layer being relatively younger
stratum - each layer of rock in a profile, arranged in the order in which they were deposited. Position of fossil in strata allows for relative dating method. Only allows palaeontologists to determine whether a fossil is older or younger than other fossils.

52
Q

Mechanisms for evolution

A

mutation
Natural selection
genetic drift
Gene flow

53
Q

selection pressure

A

An abiotic or biotic environmental factor that enhances the survival and reproduction of these individuals in a population who possess a beneficial trait, and reduces the survival and reproduction of those individuals without that trait.

54
Q

population

A

Group of individuals of the same species that live in the same geographic are and interbreed to produce the same offspring.
members have variation in their genotypes that causes variation in their phenotypes

55
Q

Natural selection steps

A

1. Variation
2. Overproduction
3. Competition and survival of the fittest
4. Higher production rate
5. Heritability
6. Change in allele frequencies over generations

56
Q

Artificial selection

A

intentional breeding or reproduction by humans of individuals with desirable traits, resulting in changes in allele frequencies in gene pools over time.

57
Q

Sexual selection

A

selection by males and females of a population for an inherited trait that assists in copulation or in the winning of a mate.
Links to mating behaviours of animals
over generations, frequency of advantageous alleles increases
Leads to fixation of advantageous alleles and extinction of disadvantageous alleles.
can also lead to sexual dimorphism

58
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

species in which males and females have different appearances or size.
two sexes of the same species display two different forms

59
Q

Biological fitness

A

the capacity of an individual to survive and produce viable, fertile offspring.

60
Q

Genetic drift

A

mechanisms of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population change over generations due to chance
Occurs in all populations, effects strongest in small populations, faster fixation of alleles and extinction of others.
occurs when a random, non-representative sample from a population produces the next generation. Thus, over time the proportion of an allele can ‘drift’ up or down.
Random fertilisation
random assortment

61
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

caused by catastrophic event or period of adverse conditions which drastically reduces the size of a population
If some portion of population survives, OG gene pool cannot be recovered.

62
Q

founder effect

A

Happens when there is a dramatic decrease in genetic diversity caused by the development of small colonies of individuals, sourced from OG population, that remain isolated from other colonies.

63
Q

gene flow

A

Transfer of alleles, and its results from the migration of individuals from one population to another
Immigrations may add new alleles to gene pool and emigrants may completely remove some alleles or significantly change their frequency.
Migration of individuals from population to population results in changes in the allele frequencies in populations.

64
Q

variable traits

A

A trait that varies in the population due to differences in alleles carried by different individuals.
must be inherited

65
Q

Micro-evolution

A

change in the gene pool below species level
Change within a species

66
Q

macro-evolution

A

Evolutionary changes above the species level

67
Q

speciation

A

Evolution of one or more new species from an ancestrial species

68
Q

biological species concept

A

Whether members can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

69
Q

morphological species concept

A

Defines species by its structural features

70
Q

macro-evolution steps

A

1. Population change over time as their gene pools accumulate small changes in response to natural selection - micro-evolution
2. Eventually a population accumulates so many changes that a new species can be identified - speciation
3. Sometimes a rapid series of speciation event leads to the development of a whole collection of new species, or even genera, families, or higher classification groups - macro-evolution

71
Q

Mechanisms of speciation

A

reproductive isolation - when a single population becomes 2 seperate populations that are unable to interbreed due to changes that produce physical, biological or behavioural barriers
Adaptive radiation - process by which a species rapidly diversifies into many taxa with differing adaptations
divergent evolution - one species has separated (diverged into 2 seperate species)

72
Q

Pre-reproductive isolating mechanism

A

a mechanism that prevent organisms from being able to interact to reproduce
Biological and ecological mechanisms: temporal (time) mechanisms, Behavioural mechanisms, morphological mechanisms.

73
Q

Post-reproductive isolating mechanisms

A

(Post-zygotic)
A mechanism that prevents fertilisation occurring or an embryo developing into viable offspring if fertilisation occurs.
mechanisms include: gamete mortality, Zygote mortality, hybrid sterility

74
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

speciation that occurs due to physical or geographic isolation
Seperations include: water (for terrestrial animals), land (for aquatic animals), mountains, continental drift, rising sea levels, climate change.

75
Q

sympatric speciation

A

Speciation that occurs without physical or geographical isolation

76
Q

Mass extinction

A

Period when rate of extinction is very high
extinction of many species over relatively short period of time.

Yr.12 Biology (6 decks)

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