Hazardous Environments Flashcards

Question

How to measure tropical cyclones?

Answer 1

The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricane’s sustained wind speed. This scale estimates the property damage.

Answer 2

Below 74mph, it is just a storm. 1 - 74-95 mph 2 - 96 - 110 mph 3 - 111 - 129 mph 4 - 130 - 156 mph 5 - 157mph or higher

Answer 3

An anemometer

Answer 4

For the USA and the Caribbean The Atlantic Ocean

Answer 5

In Asia The Pacific Ocean

Answer 6

In the Southern/Indian Ocean Australia

Answer 7

Generally westward due to easterly winds, and towards the poles

Answer 8

1. **Low pressure**: There is a band of low pressure where the Trades Winds converge around the Equator called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Low pressure means warm air is rising. 2. **Warm, Wet air rises**: The warm air near the equator rises. As it does, water vapour, evaporated from the surface of the ocean, also rises. As the warm, wet air rises higher and higher into the atmosphere, the water vapour cools and condenses, forming towering clouds and heavy rainfall. 3. **Growing Depression**: As warm, wet air rises from the surface of the ocean, an area of even lower pressure is created called a depression. The continuous upflow or warm, wet air draws in air from surrounding areas, meaning the depression gets bigger. Remember this is because air moves from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure! 4. **Spiralling Winds**: The winds drawn from the surrounding area spiral in around the depression. This is due to the Coriolis Force which is a force that deflects winds because of the Earth’s rotation. In the northern hemisphere, the Coriolis force deflects winds in a clockwise direction. This is what causes our tropical cyclones to spin. 5. **Dense Cloud**: As the air that rises up cools and condenses, a thick layer of cool, dense cloud is formed over the top of the spiralling storm. This thick layer of cloud can be as high as 15 km above sea level. 6. **Drawing Energy From the Ocean**: The storm continues to draw energy from the warm, tropical oceans, growing bigger and stronger. When wind speeds reach 74 mph it is classed as a Category 1 tropical cyclone. 7. **Eye of the Storm**: Seen from above, the cyclone has an eye at the centre. This is formed when cold air from above the storm begins to descend at the storm’s centre, while around the eye, warm, wet air continues to rise. 8. **Moving towards Land**: In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing winds and Coriolis force steer the tropical cyclone towards land, although their course is unpredictable. As the cyclone moves into shallower, warmer waters it will grow stronger, increasing in Category. 9. **Hitting the Coastline**: Eventually, the tropical cyclone will make landfall. When it hits the land, the strong winds may damage property and storm surges may cause flooding. There will be very heavy rain, thunder and lightning. 10. **Dissipation**: As tropical cyclones move inshore, their power gradually reduces because their energy comes from the warm, tropical oceans. The Category will be downgraded and eventually they will dissipate completely.

Answer 9

Only about 10%

Answer 10

● Air pressure is sometimes also called atmospheric pressure. This is the total weight of the air in the atmosphere pushing down on the surface of the earth. ● Rising air (eg as occurs during evaporation) leads to low pressure at the surface ● Descending air leads to high pressure at the surface ● Air will move to try and balance out pressure, moving from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure. This creates wind.

Answer 11

A lahar is a mudflow caused by water and debris mixing during a volcanic eruption. It is an Indonesian term that describes a mixture of water and rock fragments. It makes a hot, muddy flow that usually flows down existing river valleys, collecting debris and causing severe destruction to property.

Answer 12

A pyroclastic flow is a hot moving current of ash and gas. The flow can move at speeds of up to 450 mph and temperatures can reach 1000°C. It is the most dangerous characteristic of a volcanic eruption.

Answer 13

● Sulphur, carbon dioxide and cyanide released during volcanic eruptions ● These gases are all potentially hazardous to people, animals, agriculture, and property.

Answer 14

● Ash is thrown into the air during violent eruption ● Ash causes damage by blanketing everything e.g. crops and roads ● Roofs of buildings often collapse under the weight of deposited ash ● Air thick with ash can asphyxiate humans and animals

Answer 15

● Cause large local economic loss - Destroys farmland, buildings, transport ● Rarely reach past 10km from the volcanic crater, therefore do not cause as much destruction as often thought ● As they move slowly, people can be evacuated. Therefore lives are rarely lost due to lava.

Answer 16

An earthquake is a sudden and brief period of intense shaking of the ground. The centre of the earthquake underground is called the focus. Shock waves travel outwards from the focus. These are strongest closest to the epicentre (the point on the surface directly above the focus). The amount of damage depends on the depth of the earthquake and the type of rock.

Answer 17

● The worst damage during an earthquake occurs where the focus is closest to the surface and where the rocks are soft (loosely packed grains) and saturated with water. ● Shock waves ‘liquefy’ soft rocks so that they behave like a liquid. This means that such rocks lose their load-bearing ability. ● As a result, the foundations of buildings and bridges simply collapse. ● Often, water can rise to the surface as the sediment particles settle and displace the water.

Answer 18

Another after-effect of an earthquake is a tsunami. Earthquakes with epicentres under the sea can generate large, destructive waves up to 30m high.

Answer 19

The Poles, but the water is too cold at the poles for tropical cyclones to form. At the Equator, it is the weakest, hence they do not form at the Equator.

Answer 20

The Ring of Fire is a major area around the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. It is mainly dominated by destructive plate boundaries. It has over 400 volcanoes. About 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire.

Answer 21

With the VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index), a logarithmic scale from 1 to 8, calculating the volume and height of ash 1 - 0.0001 km^3 of ash 2 - 0.001 km^3 of ash 3 - 0.01 km^3 of ash 4 - 0.1 km^3 of ash 5 - 1 km^3 of ash 6 - 10 km^3 of ash 7 - 100 km^3 of ash 8 - 1000 km^3 of ash

Answer 22

We use the seismometer/seismograph. This is a needle that moves, drawing the frequency of the shaking on a paper.

Answer 23

1. Richter Scale - logarithmic scale (multiplies by 10 from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, etc.), measures the amount of energy released during seismic event 2. Mercali Scale - based on people’s experience and the amount of damage (impact) 3. Moment Magnitude Scale - based on energy on a logarithmic scale (like Richter scale), but also measures it with rock movement (in distance), not a seismometer

Answer 24

The crust is the thinnest layer of the Earth and is the layer we live on. It is made up of a variety of rocks and can reach up to 70 km thick in places. The crust itself is divided into large chunks called tectonic plates. There are around 7 large and 12 small plates, which ‘float’ on top of the mantle beneath them.

Answer 25

The mantle is the widest section of the Earth. It has a thickness of approximately 2,900 km. The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft and beginning to melt.

Answer 26

The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel and is between 3,500-4,000°C. As the liquid metal swirls around, it induces a current that generates the Earth’s magnetic field. Heat from the core powers the convection currents in the mantle.

Answer 27

The inner core is the hottest part of the Earth reaching temperatures between 4,000-4,700°C, which are as hot as the surface of the sun. It is made of solid iron and nickel that are under so much pressure they cannot melt. It is 1,200km thick and heavy radioactive elements within the core generate the intense heat as they decay.

Answer 28

The Earth’s outer crust is divided up into several plates that ‘float’ on the mantle. These plates move very slowly (60 to 100mm a year) - roughly the same speed your fingernails grow!

Answer 29

The plates themselves are made up of 2 different types of crust, continental crust under the land and oceanic crust under the sea. Continental crust is thick (25-70km) and light because it is made of rocks with a low density. Oceanic crust is thin (6-11km) and heavy because it is made of rocks (mostly volcanic rocks) that have a high density. The oceanic crust covers 2/3 of the Earth’s surface.

Answer 30

1) Convection currents - Heat produced by radioactive decay from the Earth’s core causes rock (magma) to rise towards the crust and spread - The magma cools and sinks - This process is repeated in a cycle and is responsible for the movement of plates 2) Gravitational sliding Ridge Push - At mid-ocean ridges new oceanic crust is pushed apart by rising magma from the mantle. - As the mid-ocean ridge is higher than the ocean floor, gravity causes plates to move downwards Slab pull - Gravity acting on colder and dense subducting plates causes it to sink and pulls the remaining plate behind it

Answer 31

A divergent boundary

Answer 32

A convergent boundary

Answer 33

Plates moving away from each other. Another way to say this is divergent.

Answer 34

An oceanic and continental plate moving towards each other. Another way to say this is convergent.

Answer 35

Two plates of the same density moving towards each other.

Answer 36

Two plates moving alongside each other

Answer 37

• Two oceanic plates moving AWAY from each other • When plates move apart, molten rock (magma) rises to fill any gap and creates new crust often through submarine volcanoes and mid-oceanic ridges • Often occurs under the ocean – sea floor spreading • Earthquakes can occur but tend to be weak due to little friction

Answer 38

• Two plates (oceanic and continental) moving TOWARDS each other • The denser Oceanic Plate is forced below the lighter Continental plate – this is known as subduction. •As the oceanic plate sinks due to slab pull, it melts becoming magma forming a magma chamber. Magma rises to the surface to form volcanoes. • Folding of the continental plate also forms mountains • The friction and release of energy between the two plates during movement also creates large earthquakes

Answer 39

- 2 plates of the same type collide - Neither plate can be subducted so the crust becomes crumpled and is folded up to form fold mountains - No volcanic activity as not plates are created or destroyed so no magma is created - Earthquakes are shallow but powerful

Answer 40

- 2 plates slide past each other - No volcanic activity as no plates are created/destroyed so no magma formed - Earthquakes form as the plates do not slide past each other smoothly. They can get stuck leading to a build of pressure. This pressure is then released in the form of seismic waves leading to an earthquake.

Answer 41

The mid Atlantic ridge in Iceland

Answer 42

The Nazca Plate (oceanic) subducted under the South American Plate (continental). This created the Lascar Volcano in Chilean Andes.

Answer 43

San Andrea’s Fault California

Answer 44

The Indian and Eurasian Tectonic Plates crashed into one another, creating the Himalayas

Answer 45

The Coriolis force is an apparent force caused by the Earth's rotation that deflects moving objects, like wind. It works by making winds that flow into a low-pressure area (like a tropical storm) curve rather than travel in a straight line. This deflection causes the air to spin, leading to the characteristic circulation of a tropical cyclone: counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Answer 46

Hotspots occur when one of the Earth’s plates moves over an unusually hot part of the Earth’s mantle. These hot areas are usually relatively stationary and result in large amounts of magma rising up and breaking through the crust to form a volcano. As the plates move, a series of volcanoes can form. This is how the Galapagos and Hawaiian islands were formed.

Answer 47

- shield volcano - dome volcano - caldera volcano - composite volcano

Answer 48

60-100 mm per year

Answer 49

A wave under the earth that begins at the focus

Answer 50

The epicentre is where an earthquake hits on the surface. The focus is where an earthquake hits under the surface of the Earth.

Answer 51

Cyclone Nargis killed 138,000 people, costing billions of dollars to recover from

Answer 52

The bounds of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, from 23.5 degrees north and south

Answer 53

It begins to lose energy, as the water is no longer warm

Answer 54

1. Pressure builds under the surface at a tectonic plate boundary (usually destructive) until it is released in an earthquake. - An overriding plate get stuck over the subducting plate - The overriding plate slowly begins to distort under the weight and pressure of the subducting plate due to slab pull 2. The crust is suddenly pushed upwards after the earthquake, shifting the ocean water and causing a wave to form. 3. Large waves begin moving through the ocean away from the earthquake’s epicentre. 4. Further from the coast, in deeper water, the tsunami moves at great speeds. 5. As the wave reaches shallow water near coastal areas, the tsunami slows but increases in height. 6. The massive wave hits the shore and travels inland, destroying objects and buildings in its path.

Answer 55

Volcanoes and earthquakes are distributed mostly along plate boundaries, anomalies being near Madagascar, Antarctica, the Pacific Ocean and Central China.

Answer 56

Pacific Plate, Nazca Plate, Cocos Plate, Juan de Fuca Plate, Philippine Sea Plate, Scotia Plate, Caroline Plate, Bismarck Plate, New Hebrides Plate, Antarctic Plate (mostly oceanic)

Answer 57

North American Plate, South American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate, Indo-Australian Plate (sometimes split into Indian Plate + Australian Plate), Arabian Plate, Somali Plate, Sunda Plate, Burma (Myanmar) Plate, Okhotsk Plate, Caribbean Plate

Answer 58

6378 km deep

Answer 59

The upper layer of the mantle just below the lithosphere

Answer 60

The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle

Answer 61

Due to the pressure of the weight of all the other layers holding it together

Answer 62

2900 km deep

Answer 63

5100 km deep

Answer 64

A temperature gradient, creating a convection current

Answer 65

A sonar sends a ping down, and we measure the time taken for the ping to rebound and be heard again.

Answer 66

It is a key change in beliefs, approach or underlying assumptions based on new discoveries and evidence.

Answer 67

It checks the age of a rock, using the amount of carbon in something, and using our knowledge of how long it takes for carbon to break down.

Answer 68

It was a 2 day disaster in 2023 (27-28th December) - strong winds and heavy rain in Wales, Northwest UK, and Manchester had a tornado. There were 4 deaths, the power was cut, and travel disruptions and property damage occurred.

Answer 69

The story of plate tectonics explains that Earth’s crust is divided into moving plates driven by convection currents in the mantle. Early explanations included catastrophism — the idea that sudden, large-scale events were caused when God or spirits were unhappy — which preceded more scientific theories. Alfred Wegener (1912) proposed continental drift (Pangaea) but lacked a mechanism. He only managed to discover traces of land animal movement across large oceans, and rock patterns that supported his idea. Later contributions gave that mechanism: Arthur Holmes suggested mantle convection currents, Marie Tharp mapped the ocean floor, with interpolation and sonars, (revealing the Mid-Atlantic Ridge), and Harry Hess proposed sea-floor spreading. Magnetic striping on the ocean floor confirmed new crust forming at ridges and moving outward. Together these explain earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, and slow plate motion (centimetres per year).

Answer 70

The magnetic north will move or even flip occasionally

Answer 71

They point the way of magnetic north when they were formed.

Answer 72

It will break off from Africa, as it is creating a ridge

Answer 73

The biggest cities tend to be located where tectonic hazards occur, due to a host of reasons. The biggest cities are usually located in Europe, India and South-East Asia. Less tend to be in central Africa, Canada, Greenland and Russia. They are also located near coastlines, for trade and commerce.

Answer 74

A line to show that the countries above are developed and below aren’t, but now it isn’t taken very seriously anymore

Answer 75

Is the meteorological term for a hurricane

Answer 76

1. Fertile Volcanic Soil - volcanic ash contains mineral that enrich the soil, acting as a fertiliser (eg. Naples is used for grape growth which makes wine from Mount Etna) making farmers money. 2. Geothermal Energy - volcanoes can provide very cheap geothermal energy (eg. Iceland has 25% of enery from this) 3. Choosing to stay - some people are optimists and believe they will never be victims of a natural disaster. It can also be because of family or growing up there. 4. Tourism Industry - some volcanoes are popular tourist attractions (eg. Mount Etna in Sicily or Mount Vesuvius in Naples or Icelandic volcanoes) 5. Mineral Mining - minerals like tin, copper, silver, gold and diamonds can be found in volcanic rock, making money 6. Cultural Reasons - many who live close to Mount Merapi in Indonesia believe the ancient spirits watch over them from the peak and will warn them of an eruption 7. Inability to move - some people in LICs can’t move due to lack of money or potential job insecurity 8. Unaware of risk - lack of education and information leads to many residents being unaware of real risks, especially if hazards happen rarely and it may have been generations since the last 9. Coastlines - they are long-founded hubs for trade and commerce, even though many hazards occur there 10. Sufficient knowledge - some places (eg. Japan) have a lot of precautions for hazards so people feel safe, especially in HICs

Answer 77

Vulnerability is the potential to be harmed by a natural hazard.

Answer 78

- physical vulnerability - social vulnerability - economic vulnerability

Answer 79

It is the potential for physical impact on the physical environment.

Answer 80

It is the potential impacts of events on specific groups of people (eg. poor, elderly, children, handicapped, pregnant women, etc.).

Answer 81

It is the potential impacts of hazards on economic assets and processes.

Answer 82

● displaced populations who leave their habitual residence in collectives, usually due to a sudden impact disaster, such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict, as a coping mechanism and with the intent to return ● migrants who leave or flee their habitual residence to go to new places, usually abroad to seek better and safer perspectives ● returnees – former migrants or displaced people returning to their homes ● specific groups within the local population, such as marginalized, excluded or destitute people ● young children, pregnant and nursing women, unaccompanied children, widows, elderly people without family support, people with disabilities

Answer 83

In a disaster, women in general may be affected differently from men because of their social status, family responsibilities or reproductive role, but they are not necessarily vulnerable. They are also resourceful and resilient in a crisis and play a crucial role in recovery of a country post-disaster.

Answer 84

1. Proximity to the hazard - those close to a volcano, plate boundaries, a coast or earthquake epicentre are more likely to be affected by hazards 2. Magnitude of hazard - smaller volcanic eruptions or earthquakes, or lower category tropical cyclones are less likely to cause mass damage and death compared to higher magnitude events. With earthquakes, a deeper focus can also mean friction limits the energy released at the surface. 3. Time/day of the week - more deaths can occur when a hazard cannot be predicted or occurs at night 4. Population density - more deaths and damage occur when hazards strike densely populated areas 5. Building/infrastructure standards - strict planning laws means more buildings are able to withstand hazards in HICs, but in LICs, more buildings are unregulated or built by the inhabitants, increasing potential danger 6. Prediction - while earthquakes cannot be predicted, tropical cyclones and volcanic eruptions can be, giving people time to prepare, secure property and evacuate the area 7. Level of development - wealthy countries can afford to mitigate the risks of a hazard through prediction, protection and preparation, with more access to higher end technologies to aid them in this process than LICs 8. Education - in wealthy countries, children are more likely to be informed of the risks of hazards and how to cope with it (eg. evacuation drills and preparation) as opposed to poorer countries 9. Governance - stable governments have the power to advance policies to reduce the risk of hazards, supporting education and awareness programs, and reducing poverty, as opposed to unstable or corrupt governments 10. Age and Gender - children and the elderly tend to be more vulnerable to hazards, as they may have limited mobility, be more susceptible to disease, or have a lack of awareness. In some countries, the same applies to women, who are less educated and more isolated than men.

Answer 85

1. Proximity to hazard - you will not be remotely affected if you are far from the hazard 2. Population Density 3. Magnitude of Hazard 4. Prediction 5. Level of development 6. Building/infrastructure standards 7. Governance 8. Time/day of the week 9. Education 10. Age and gender - young children tend to copy the actions of those around them and sense and cope with danger quite well, and as long as they are educated they will be fine. Then, the elderly, as still able to somehow evacuate, with the help of others.

Answer 86

Women - in some countries, women can’t leave their house without a male party or not dressed appropriately, while some can’t leave due to fear of sexual harassment. Some can’t escape due the lack education and skill, such as swimming in a tsunami, or navigation in an earthquake. They could also feel responsible for children, and sometimes they face malnutrition, as they are expected to feed their children their portions at meals. Pregnant women are also evidently vulnerable, or single mums. Men - single dads, they can also be vulnerable due the macho effect (the idea that men should try and save other/women)

Answer 87

- only 50% had access to latrines in Port-au-Prince - only 33% had access to clean tap water - they have a life expectancy of 60 (UK = 80) - IMR (infant mortality rate) is 86 per 1000 (UK = <5) - GNI (gross national income) is $660 pa (UK = $41,370 pa) - there is massive rural urban migration due to little employment opportunities - huge slums in Port-au-Prince - unemployment rate as high as 90% - long history of unstable/ineffectual government - in hurricane belt, suffering large losses in 2008 and not fully recovered - poor governance at local and national level - poor building codes as houses had no earthquake resistance - poorest country in western hemisphere 70% live on less than $2 a day - in seismically active region - poor planning to limited infrastructure - many public services provided by NGOs and the UN - lack of coherent emergency plan for a disaster - 86% of people in Port-au-Prince lived in slum conditions - lack of public awareness of what to do in the event of an earthquake - shortage of trained health workers and an underfunded healthcare system

Answer 88

- short-term: immediate impacts (up to a few days) - long-term: impacts lasting more than a few days to weeks and months after the event

Answer 89

- Capital - Tokyo - 3 Major Cities - Yokohama, Osaka, and Kyoto - the seas and oceans - Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, Sea of Okhotsk - population size - 124 million people - population density - 338 people per km^2 - GDP per capita - 32,475.89 USD (about the same as the UK) - plate boundary type - complex convergent/destructive plate boundary (Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, Okhotsk Plate, Philippine Sea Plate)

Answer 90

About 75 million

Answer 91

On March 11th 2011, a large earthquake and tsunami hit Japan. The event is known as the Great Sendai Earthquake or the Great Tōhoku Earthquake. The event began as a powerful earthquake off the northeastern coast of Honshu. The earthquake causes widespread damage on land and initiated a series of large tsunami waves that devastated many coastal areas in the country, particularly the Tōhoku region (northeastern Honshu). The tsunami also instigated a major nuclear accident (Fukushima) at a power station along the coast.

Answer 92

- **Death and injury**: 15,894 people died, 6,152 people were injures, 130,927 were displaced and 2,562 people remain missing - **Nuclear Crisis**: A 9m high wave flooded the plant’s generator and electrical wiring, with people losing energy immediately - **Flood defence disaster**: Japan spent billions of dollars anti-tsunami defences at heights of 12m. The tsunami washed over them, rendering them totally ineffective. - **Damage**: 332,395 buildings, 2,126 roads, 56 bridge, and 26 railways were destroyed or damaged. 300 hospitals were damaged and 11 were totally destroyed. - **Blackouts**: Around 4.4 million households in North-East Japan were left without electricity.

Answer 93

- **Fore and aftershocks**: Scientists estimate that over 800 earthquakes of magnitude 4.5 or more were recorded following the main earthquake - **Tsunami**: It was up to 40m high, devastating entire towns and resulting in the loss of thousands of lives. This caused a lot of damage and pollution up to 6 miles inland. - **Land fall**: Some coastal areas experienced land subsidence as the earthquake dropped the beachfronts in some places by more than 50cm.

Answer 94

- **Economy**: The economic cost was US $235 billion, making this the most expensive natural disaster in world history - **Tsunami**: Only 58% of people in the coastal areas followed the tsunami warnings and headed for higher ground. The wave hit 49% of those who did not follow this warning. - **Nuclear Power**: The damage caused by the earthquake resulted in the meltdown of seven reactors. Radiation levels at one point were over eight times higher normal levels. - **Transport**: Japan’s transport network suffered huge disruptions. Sections of the Tohoku Expressway were damaged. - **Aftermath**: The ‘Japan move forward committee’ thought that young adults and teenagers could help rebuild parts of Japan devastated by the earthquake.

Answer 95

- **Land movement**: The quake moved parts of North-East Japan 2.4m closer to North America - **Costal changes**: A 250 mile stretch of coastline dropped by 0.5m, allowing the tsunami to travel further inland - **Plate shifts**: Geologists estimate that the Pacific Plate has slipped westward by between 20 and 40m - **Seabed shift**: The seabed near the epicentre shifted by 24m and the seabed off the coast of the Miyogi province has moved by 3m - **Earth axis moves**: The earthquake moved the earth’s axis by between 10 and 25m, shortening the day by 18 microseconds. - **Liquefaction**: This occurred in many parts of Tokyo built on reclaimed land. 1,046 buildings were damaged.

Answer 96

Death and Injury - many loved ones died, got injured or went missing, can’t provide for family (left in poverty), injured put pressure on healthcare, and the displaced put pressure on the government to find them, and the cost of life insurance would have sky-rocketed for insurances.

Answer 97

The 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami happened because the Pacific Plate was being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate along the Japan Trench. Over centuries, stress built up as the plates locked together until a sudden megathrust (magnitude 9.0) earthquake released it. This caused a huge vertical displacement of the seafloor, which generated the massive tsunami. Smaller slow-slip quakes had occurred beforehand, showing strain was increasing before the big event.

Answer 98

- Capital - Reykjavik - 3 Major Cities - Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, and Akureyi - population size - 398,873 people - GDP per capita - 82,703.86 USD (very high) - plate boundary type - divergent plate boundary between the North American and Eurasian Plates - name and location of the 2010 volcano - Eyjafjallajökull, in South-West Iceland

Answer 99

- there is a magma chamber under the Eyjafjallajökull ice sheet, the sixth biggest ice sheet in Iceland, covering 100 km^2 - was the source of lava for the usually dormant volcano - due to a tectonic divergence, that continues under the sea to form the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Answer 100

→ short-term air traffic - ash cloud prevents planes flying → water supply and road transport was hard for farmers → worry of a flood → car rental companies got extra business → railway services carried up to 50,000 extra passengers per day → the eruption released gases such as sulphur dioxide, leading to an increase in acid rain, killing trees and vegetation → on the 18th April, 313 airports across Europe were forced to close → livestock had to be kept indoors during ash fall → ash made sky dark & people had to wear breathing masks → the main road was damaged

Answer 101

Very slow, people rarely die from it

Answer 102

→ long-term rebooking/cancelling of flights & change of plans for people, and abrasize silicare from ash was sucked into the jet air of aircrafts → jet engine's turbine melting → engine failure → International Air Transport association assessed the loss to the Europe travel Industry as 1.7 bilion pounds → stocks & shares of air companies fell a lot → demand for jet oil slumped by 2 million barrels a day → preducts air travelled couldn’t be sent → Kenya lost £2.4 million a day, as their crops were left to rot → slow ferry links for Icelandic fishers → loss of glaciers

Answer 103

Saltwater intrusion

Answer 104

- Location of New Orleans - South-East Louisiana, 30.07 degrees N latitude - Oceans - Pacific and Atlantic Ocean - population size of New Orleans - 362,701 people - population size of the US - 340.1 million people - GDP per capita of the US - 85,809.90 USD (very high) - GDP per capita of New Orleans - 33,000 USD

Answer 105

- displaced 1 million people - 8m storm surge waves flooded New Orleans - 80% of the city was flooded by 6m height of water - news caused many people to question why a leading city in the USA had such a devastating storm - Hurricane Katrina was Category 4 - levees crashed - poorest people had to remain in the city - went to the Super dome, where it was unhygienic and there was a shortage of food and water - looting was common

Answer 106

- 2000 killed, thousands injured - $84 billion of damage costs - wind destroyed hotels and the roof of the Super dome - displaced 1 million people - 1 million people were made homeless and 1200 people drowned in the floods - oil facilities were damages so petrol prices rose in the UK & USA

Answer 107

The storm itself was very strong, but not the strongest, but, ultimately, the mayor was late in giving an evacuation signal, the storm protection was very poor (levees fell), and the evacuation plan was very very poor, as they were deciding who stayed and left and how in the moment. They also got less help than expected, suffering, & they had to rely on the population and general public to save one another (many went around in boats, saving people from the flooding).

Answer 108

11th March 2011

Answer 109

29th August 2005

Answer 110

April 2010 (main explosive phase started around 14 April 2010)

Answer 111

**EARTHQUAKE!** —> Immediate Response (warning & evacuation, local community response, crisis mapping) —> Short-Term Response (emergency aid, shelter and supplies) —> Long-Term Response (rebuilding and reconstruction) —> Preparation (improve resilience through building design, hazard mapping, and risk assessment) —> **EARTHQUAKE!** —> …

Answer 112

Immediate Response: - got 11 military aircrafts in the air within 30 minutes, to survey devastation and identify priorities - these found the Hakozaki community was completely cut off - within 2 seconds of earthquake detection, Shinkansen (bullet) trains were stopped and derailed to prevent any injury or death - almost immediately after the earthquake was detected, electricity was cut - all citizens got a warning text on their phones about the incoming tsunami - Facebook had a ‘mark safe’ button so the government could know who was missing Short-Term Response: - within 2 days, all debris had been cleared and emergency goods could be delivered twice a day - emergency teams were overwhelmed and inadequate - within days of the disaster, 452,000 people were in evacuation shelters - but the power was lost, so there was poor heating, temperature falling to -4 degrees Celsius, causing respiratory disease and hypothermia

Answer 113

Immediate Response: - Dominican Republic sent aid, and allowed people to cross the border - Iceland sent an emergency response team within 24 hours - however, relied planes couldn’t land, and aid ships were turned away as they couldn’t land at the port, due to a lack of co-ordination which made the situation worse Short-term response: - 1500 evacuation camps were set up, but they were very bad quality - human waste got contaminated in the water due to the UN peacekeepers from Nepal, so cholera spread - more people died from the cholera than the actual disaster

Answer 114

Hazard mapping helps to locate areas most at risk from a disaster. It can also reduce vulnerability by giving knowledge of where to go next time a hazard strikes. Japan has more accuracy than Haiti as they are wealthier, and they have more archives of data kept over time.

Answer 115

12th January 2010 - The Disaster: a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck near Port-au-Prince; around 230,000 deaths, 300,000 injured, and 1.5 million homeless; 70% of buildings collapsed; transport destroyed January/February 2010: very limited search and rescue; airport control tower and main port destroyed, preventing aid communication; 1.5 million people in shelters, with poor sanitation; hospitals collapsed, so field hospitals were set up by NGOs October 2010 - Cholera Outbreak: killed around 9,000 people by 2019 2011 - 1 years later later: 20% of debris cleared out of 19 million m^3 created; still 810,000 people in shelter camps; port partially restored; electricity and water still unreliable; still operating buildings 2012-2015 - 2-5 years later: slow housing reconstruction; 15% left in camps, but others are in unsafe conditions; aid money built roads/schools/etc. 2016-2020 - 6-10 years later: 2016 Hurricane Matthew made 175,000 homeless; by 2020, there were major infrastructure gaps 2020 - Present - 10+ years: recovery still incomplete; many live in poor housing; political instability; fragile health and education system; 2021 earthquake

Answer 116

11th March 2011 - Disaster: 9.0 magnitude earthquake; over 18,000 deaths, 470,000 displaced; tsunami 40m high; Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant meltdown March-April 2011: search and rescue - 100,000 soldiers in 24 hours; shelters; half of trains damaged, but fixed by the 24th March 2011 November 2011 - 8 months later: 100% of travel restored; 68% of port capacity; 96% of electricity supply; 98% of water supply; 99% of communication restored 2012-2013 - Years later: slow housing reconstruction, 230,000 still incomplete temporary houses in 2012; nuclear decontamination still going; most infrastructure by 2015 2016-2010: major infrastructure largely restored; some exclusion zones still inhabitable; ongoing socio-economic challenges 2021 to Present: nuclear shift takes 30-40 years; socio-economic challenges; physical urban recovery

Answer 117

In an evacuation, time is critical. Many households in earthquake zones prepare ‘grab & go’ bags to use in event of an earthquake or tsunami. Some good ideas for one are canned food, a water bottle, cash, a life jacket, a first aid kit, a passport, a whistle, phone, or a protein bar.

Answer 118

—> Warning and Evacuation: clusters of small earthquakes, practising drills, ground hilt, educate the population, alerts, predict and monitor, change in stress, small scale ground surface change, changes in gas concentration, unusual animal behaviour (eg. toads) —> Remote Sensing: uses satellites to trace earthquakes and changes in the Earth, monitors ground tremors, can be mapped, helping people and reducing death —> Individual Preparation: education, awareness of evacuation routes, emergency bags (grab & go bag) —> Building Design: maximal space between buildings, steel frames, single storey buildings are more able to withstand shock waves —> GIS: assess risk (more people can prepare earlier), puts data on maps, geographical information systems, uses remote sensing

Answer 119

- phones have earthquake/tsunami signals - Facebook has a ‘mark safe’ button - all schools undergo regular earthquake drills

Answer 120

They have seismic codes and rigorous local building codes. The buildings are also made of earthquake-resistant materials (eg. steel, timber or rubber), that bend rather than snap with force). Safety regulation inspections on buildings happen every 10 years.

Answer 121

They have a minimum thickness to withstand extreme force. There are also dampers in columns and beams, that absorb seismic energy and reduce breakage.

Answer 122

It is when lead/steel/rubber poles underground present the building shaking by isolate it, so it sways independently.

Answer 123

It is when a core pillar is built down the middle of a skyscraper (mainly), and when there is an earthquake, the pendulum inside the building swings, counteracting the swaying building, which causes it to be more stable and less likely to fall.

Answer 124

They are homes with an earthquake detector, which pushes air below the house and raises it 1-3cm from the foundation when it detects a tremor. This reduces shaking and damage as it does not come into contact with the ground.

Answer 125

As opposed to Japan, the methods less developed countries use are less effective, as they don’t fully prevent shock, but they still work. They have: - light walls and gables: lightweight structures are less susceptible to large forces of shaking, in Pakistan, these are made of straw - small windows: this creates less weak spots in the walls - light roofs: in Haiti, many heavy concrete roofs collapsed on home, sheet metal roofs on wooden trusses are more resistant - reinforced walls: eucalyptus or bamboo can act as reinforcing rods in walls, in Peru, some walls are reinforced with plastic mesh - confined masonry: in Indonesia, brick walls are directly connected to the roof, by corner columns and crown beams of reinforced concrete, so when a tremor happens, the building moves as a unit - shock absorbers: tyres filled with stones or sand fastened between the floor and the foundation can act as cheap shock absorbers for many types of buildings

Hazardous Environments Flashcards

(179 cards)