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AQA A level Biology > Heart, Hb etc > Flashcards

Heart, Hb etc Flashcards

1
Q

The cardiac cycle

ask

A

The ventricles relax whilst the atria contract.

  • the contraction of the atria means a decrease in volume but an increase in the pressure. Because the ventricles at this moment are relaxed, the pressure in the atria exceeds the pressure in the ventricles so blood is pushed into the ventricles.
  • there is a small increases in ventricular pressure and chamber volume as the ventricles receive the blood being ejected from the contracting atria

The ventricles contract whilst the atria relax

  • the contraction of the ventricles means that chamber volume decreases but there is an increase in pressure. The pressure in the ventricles becomes higher than the pressure in the atria so the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) are forced shut, preventing the back flow of blood.
  • the pressure in the ventricles is higher than the pressure in the aorta (pathways after left ventricle) and pulmonary artery (pathway after right ventricle) so the semi lunar valves are forced open and blood flows into the aforementioned arteries.

The ventricles and atria both relax

  • there is a higher pressure in the pulmonary artery and the aorta than in the ventricles (which are now relaxed) so the semi lunar valves are forced shut, preventing the back flow of blood into the ventricles.
  • the blood flows out to the body (some to the body if it’s had its second pump and some to the lungs to get oxygenated if it still needs to return to the heart for its second pump)
  • the blood returns to the heart and because there is a higher pressure in the vena cava and pulmonary vein (where blood is entering back into the heart from) than in the atria, it means that blood flows into the atria and they begin to fill again. This increases atrial pressure.
  • whilst all this is happening the ventricles are still relaxing and as they relax their pressure falls until it becomes lower than the pressure in the atria which means that the atrioventricular valves open and blood flows passively into the ventricles from the atria.
  • the process starts again so as I said before at the top of this flashcard, the atria contract (decreasing volume but increasing pressure) to squeeze the last bit of blood into the ventricles. CHECK: I don’t get it because the top of the flashcard is about blood flowing into the atria because of contracts and pressure but here it says that blood flows in passively when the process repeats???

MAYBE: the end of the process is passive when like as much blood is entering the ventricles as it passively can but the process restarts when the atria contract to push the blood that can’t passively flow into the ventricles!?

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2
Q

What has haemoglobin evolved to be like? (In terms of efficiency)

A

Efficient at loading oxygen in one se of conditions

Efficient at unloading oxygen in another set of conditions

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3
Q

Describe the structure of a haemoglobin molecule. (In terms of primary, secondary etc)

A

Primary - sequence of amino acids in 4 chains

Secondary - polypeptide chain folded into alpha helices and beta pleated sheets

Tertiary - polypeptide chain further folded into a precise shape

Quaternary - all 4 polypeptide chains linked together to form a spherical molecule.

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4
Q

What is each polypeptide chain of haemoglobin associated with?

A

Each polypeptide chain associated with a haem group that contains an Fe 2+ ion

Each Fe 2+ carries an oxygen

So each haemoglobin carries 4 oxygen molecules

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5
Q

What does the gene group allow haemoglobin to do?

A

Bind to oxygen

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6
Q

Haemoglobin bonding to oxygen is called

A

Loading or associating

Takes place in the lungs

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7
Q

Haemoglobin releasing oxygen is called

A

Unloading or dissociating

This takes place in the tissues

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8
Q

What does Hb with a high affinity for oxygen do?

A

Takes up oxygen more easily but releases it less easily

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9
Q

What does Hb with a low affinity for oxygen do

A

Takes up oxygen less easily but releases it more easily

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10
Q

How must Hb be efficient at the surface where gas exchange is occurring? (2)

A
  • readily associate with oxygen at the surface where gas exchange takes place
  • readily dissociate with oxygen at the tissues requiring oxygen
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11
Q

What is the important property of haemoglobin?

Give an example of what happens in a particular condition

A

It changes its affinity (chemical attraction) to oxygen under different conditions.

It does this by changing it’s shape in the certain conditions.

When there is lots of carbon dioxide the shape changes so that the Hb molecule binds more loosely to oxygen and as a result Hb LOSES (unloads) it’s oxygen

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12
Q

At the respiring tissues …. (oxygen conc, carbon dioxide conc, affinity of Hb for oxygen)

A

Oxygen conc is low
Carbon dioxide conc is high
So Hb has lower affinity for oxygen so it unloads oxygen

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13
Q

At the lungs gas exchange surface …. (oxygen conc, carbon dioxide conc, affinity of Hb for oxygen)

A

Oxygen conc is high
Carbon dioxide conc is low
Hb has high affinity for oxygen so oxygen loads on

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14
Q

What tends to differ about different organisms haemoglobin?

A

Haemoglobins have different affinities for oxygen

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15
Q

Why do different haemoglobin have different affinities for oxygen?

A

It’s due to the shape of the haemoglobin molecule

—> each haemoglobin has a slightly different tertiary and therefore quaternary structure so different oxygen binding properties. Depending on the structure of the Hb molecule they range from those with a high affinity for oxygen to those with a low affinity for oxygen.

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16
Q

At the respiring tissues …. (oxygen partial pressure, affinity of Hb for oxygen, Hb saturation)

A

Oxygen partial pressure is low

Hb affinity for oxygen is low

Hb saturation is low

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17
Q

At the lungs …. (oxygen partial pressure, affinity of Hb for oxygen, Hb saturation)

A

Oxygen partial pressure is high

Hb affinity for oxygen is high

Hb saturation is high

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18
Q

What does an oxygen dissociation curve show?

A

Relationship between the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen and the partial pressure of oxygen

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19
Q

Describe the first part of the sigmoid oxygen dissociation curve

A

Shape of the Hb molecules makes it difficult for the first oxygen molecule to bind to one of the (Fe 2+?) in the heme group of one of the polypeptide chains (why?) because the chains are so closely united

At low oxygen concentrations little oxygen binds to haemoglobin.

Curve gradient is shallow

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20
Q

What does the binding of the first oxygen molecule to Hb mean?

A

Binding of first oxygen molecule changes the quaternary structure of the haemoglobin causing it to change shape. This change in shape makes it easier for the other sub units to bind to an oxygen molecule

Gradient of the curve steepens

(Hb alters it’s shape into the relaxed R state that has a higher affinity for oxygen)

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21
Q

Define positive cooperativity

A

Binding of the second oxygen molecule makes it easier for other subunits to bind more easily to an oxygen molecule

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22
Q

What does it mean for the increase in partial pressure of oxygen once the first oxygen molecule has bonded to Hb

A

It takes a smaller increase in partial pressure of oxygen for the second oxygen molecule to bind than it did for the first one.

First oxygen molecule binds after partial pressure of oxygen has increased a bit then because this alters shape of Hb partial pressure of oxygen doesn’t have to change much more until it becomes easier for the second oxygen molecule to bind

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23
Q

Describe how binding of the last oxygen molecule is affected by the binding of the third to Hb?

A

Binding of the fourth oxygen molecule is harder due to probability. Majority of binding sits occupied means it is less likely the oxygen will locate the last empty site to bind to.

Gradient goes to zero as curve flattens off but never fully reaches 100% Hb saturation

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24
Q

What does it mean if the oxygen dissociation curve is further to the LEFT

A

The greater the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen

[loads oxygen more easily but unloads oxygen less readily]

(because Hb starts loading oxygen at lower oxygen partial pressures)

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25
Q

What does it mean if the oxygen dissociation curve is further to the RIGHT

A

The lower the affinity of Hb for oxygen

[loads oxygen less readily but unloads more easily]

(Because the Hb starts loading oxygen and saturation starts increasing only at higher oxygen partial pressures)

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26
Q

What does steep mean on the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Loading of oxygen is easier

Unloading of oxygen is easier

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27
Q

What do shallow parts of the haemoglobin dissociation curve mean?

A

Harder for oxygen to bind

?what does it mean for unloading?
Harder for oxygen to unload because less carbon dioxide ?

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28
Q

What happens to the curve of oxygen affinity of Hb increases

A

Shifts left

Loading increases and obvs unloading decreases so less delivery of oxygen per gram of Hb

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29
Q

What causes increased affinity in Hb molecule?

A

A conformational or structural change in the Hb molecule

Usually eg. Brought about by first oxygen binding

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30
Q

What is the prosthetic group in haemoglobin?

A

Heme group

(Protoporphyrin ring with an Fe 2+ in the centre)

Fe 2+ has 4 single bonded nitrogen’s coming off and two of these nitrogens each have a double bond carbon and single bond carbon and the other two have both single bond carbon

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31
Q

Where EXACTLY does oxygen bind to haemoglobin ?

A

The Fe 2+ in the heme group.

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32
Q

Describe the relationship between O2 partial pressures and haemoglobin saturation.

A

Positive correlation

As partial pressure of oxygen increases the Hb saturation also increases

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33
Q

Describe the relationship between carbon dioxide partial pressure and haemoglobin affinity

A

Négative corrélation

As carbon dioxide partial pressure increases the affinity of Hb decreases

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34
Q

What two things mean oxygen is readily loaded onto Hb at the lungs?

A

Low carbon dioxide partial pressures (so doesn’t reduce affinity of Hb)

High oxygen partial pressures

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35
Q

Which way does the oxygen dissociation curve shift when carbon dioxide partial pressures Decrease

A

Left

Hb still has high affinity for oxygen

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36
Q

What two things mean oxygen is readily unloaded from Hb at te repairing tissues?

A

High carbon dioxide partial pressures (decreases affinity of Hb for oxygen)

Low oxygen partial pressures

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37
Q

Which way does the curve shift when carbon dioxide partial pressure increases ?

A

Right

Hb has lower affinity for oxygen so takes higher partial pressure for Hb to start becoming saturated

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38
Q

What are the normal axis for an oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Y axis - Hb affinity/saturation

X axis - oxygen partial pressure

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39
Q

What’s the difference between oxygen partial pressure and oxygen concentration of the X axis?

A

X

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40
Q

What happens if the carbon dioxide partial pressure is on the x axis?

A

X

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41
Q

How does low pH cause Hb to have a lower affinity for oxygen?

A

X

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42
Q

How does affinity of Hb for carbon monoxide work?

A

X

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43
Q

Explain what happens with Hb affinity at the lungs.

A

Carbon dioxide constantly removes so pH slightly raised (less H+ ions)

Higher pH alters shape of Hb so it loads oxygen more readily

Shape therefore increases Hb affinity for oxygen (also means it isn’t released whilst being transported through the blood to the tissues)

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44
Q

Explain what happens with Hb affinity at respiring cells

A

At respiring cells there is lots of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide dissolves to form carbonic acid which decreases pH of blood within tissues

Lower pH changes shape of Hb so it unloads oxygen more readily

Shape therefore decreases Hb affinity for oxygen and oxygen is unloaded into repairing cells

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45
Q

Explain the sequence of events to show how lots of oxygen is provided when cells respire a lot

A

Higher rate of respiration

More CO2

Lower pH

Greater Hb change in shape

Greater Hb affinity for oxygen decreases

More readily oxygen is unloaded

More oxygen available for respiration

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46
Q

How much oxygen is unloaded by Hb at tissues of low respiratory rates and what is Hb returning to the lungs like?

A

When it reaches a tissue with only a LOW RESPIRATORY RATE (so requires less oxygen) it unloads one oxygen molecule only.

The blood returning to the lungs still contains Hb which is quite saturated.

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47
Q

What is the normal saturation of Hb?

A

97% Hb loaded with oxygen at atmospheric pressures

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48
Q

What happens with Hb saturation when a repairing tissue is very active?

A

Requires more oxygen

Three oxygen molecules are unloaded per Hb (rather than just one)

49
Q

Why do different species have different types of Hb?

A

Haemoglobin molecules with different affinities have evolved to adapt to different environments and conditions

50
Q

Species living in an environment with lower oxygen partial pressures will have

A

Hb with a higher affinity for oxygen (than Hb of animals where oxygen partial pressure is higher)

51
Q

How does a fétus receive oxygen?

A

From the mothers blood, oxygen dissociates from the mothers Hb and associated with fetal Hb in the placenta

52
Q

What is fetal Hb affinity like?

A

High affinity for oxygen because fétus requires more oxygen for respiring cells as it grows

53
Q

Fetal Hb curve

A

Shifts left

Hb has a higher affinity for oxygen

54
Q

Benefit to fetal Hb having a higher affinity for oxygen?

A

At low partial pressures of oxygen in the placenta as much oxygen will dissociate from mother’s Hb and associate with fetal Hb

55
Q

What ensures that a mother’s Hb dissociates enough oxygen so it can then be associated with fetal Hb?

A

X

Is there more CO2 ??

56
Q

Why do adults not keep fetal Hb?

XXX

A

The high affinity for oxygen means less oxygen will be unloaded at respiring tissues

?? So how come this doesn’t affect babies???

57
Q

Hb affinity of small organisms ?

A

Large SA:V

Lose lots of heat

Need to repaire to generate heat and maintain body temperature

LOWER AFFINITY

So oxygen unloads more readily at respiring cells

58
Q

Hb affinity of active organisms ?

A

Cells depriving more so require more oxygen

Hb has a LOWER AFFINITY for oxygen

So oxygen more readily unloaded

59
Q

Active organisms oxygen dissociation curve shift

A

Right

(Lower affinity for oxygen

60
Q

What does the curve shifting left mean for unloading of oxygen ?

XXX

A

Oxygen unloaded only at lower partial pressures

Oxygen loaded more at ?

61
Q

Affinity of Hb in organisms where there is low oxygen partial pressures

A

High affinity

Means even at low oxygen partial pressure Hb can readily associate with oxygen and load as much as possible in

62
Q

Curve shift for affinity of Hb in organisms at low oxygen partial pressures

A

Curve shifts left

63
Q

Classic example of an animal living at low oxygen partial pressures, what is their Hb affinity like?

A

Llama

Hb has high affinity for oxygen

Curve shifts left

64
Q

Lugworm example

A

When tide goes out, less fresh water in lug worm burrow so lug needs to extract as much oxygen from the water that is left as possible

High affinity for oxygen

Curve shifts far to the left

65
Q

What does an oxygen dissociation curve shifting really far to the left mean?

XXXX

A

Very high affinity of Hb for oxygen

Hb is fully (or very nearly) loaded with oxygen even when there is a tiny amount of oxygen in the environment

66
Q

What does an oxygen dissociation curve shifting really far to the left mean?

XXXX

A

XX

67
Q

Six situations oxygen dissociation curves shift left

A

1) Decreases in partial pressure of carbon dioxide
2) increase in alkalinity/pH
3) fetal Hb
4) living at high altitudes (low O2 pp)
5) living in anaerobic mud (low O2 pp)
6) CO poisoning

68
Q

Why does oxygen dissociation curve shift left for CO poisoning?

XXX

A

X

Less oxygen able to bind to Hb because CO already there AO affinity increases so more oxygen can be bound ???

69
Q

4 situations that oxygen dissociation curves shift right

A

1) increase in partial pressure of CO2
2) decrease in acidity/pH
3) strenuous exercise
4) hyperthermia

70
Q

Why does oxygen dissociation curve shift RIGHT in hyperthermia ?

XXXXX ?

A

Right = lower Hb affinity for oxygen

Increased body temp

Needs to cool down body temp so less respiration that also produces heat?

Lower Hb affinity for oxygen

But then that would mean more oxygen unloaded at repairing cells so more respiration and heat which is what we do not want

Or does lower affinity for oxygen mean less oxygen loaded at lungs ??

???

71
Q

Why does oxygen dissociation curve shift LEFT in hypothermia ?

XXX

A

Left = high Hb affinity for oxygen

Body temp needs to increase

So more respiration which also provides heat

So Hb to have higher affinity for oxygen so more

72
Q

Affinity of oxygen is always associated with

A

What is being loaded

High affinity = readily loaded

Low affinity = readily unloaded

73
Q

Unloading is oxygen always aaaociated with

A

Carbon dioxide partial pressures

High CO2 = readily unloaded

Low CO2 = NOT readily loaded (same as READILY LOADED)

74
Q

When thinking what affinity suits the organisms

A

think about What affinity is best for LOADING of oxygen

75
Q

Low affinity of Hb for oxygen means

A

Oxygen doesn’t readily load Hb at lungs ???

76
Q

High affinity of Hb for oxygen means

A

Oxygen readily loads on to Hb at the lungs ??

77
Q

Describe the arrow flow diagram of where blood flows through the heart

A

START: superior vena cava

Superior vena cava
Right atrium 
(Tricuspid valve) 
Right ventricle 
(Semi lunar valve/pulmonary valve)
Pulmonary artery
LUNGS
(Pulmonary vein)
Left atrium
(Bicuspid/mital valve)
Left ventricle
(Semi lunar valve/aortic valve)
Aorta
BODY
78
Q

Bicuspid valve

A

Between left atrium and left ventricle

Also called mital valve

Left atrioventricular valve

79
Q

Tricuspid valve

A

Between the right atrium and right ventricle

Also called aortic valve

Right atrioventricular valve

80
Q

What are the atria and where do they receive blood from?

A

RECEIVE FROM VEINS

Right atrium - superior vena cava

Left atrium - pulmonary vein

81
Q

Where do the ventricles pump blood to?

A

AWAY FROM HEART

Right ventricle - to the pulmonary artery

Left ventricle - to the aorta

82
Q

What are vessels connecting the heart to the lungs called?

A

Pulmonary vessels

83
Q

Where does the right ventricle pump blood to?

A

The lungs

84
Q

Where does the left ventricle pump blood to?

A

The rest of the body

85
Q

Why does the heart have two pumps and not just one?

Why is blood not pumped straight to the lungs to get oxygenated and then straight to the rest of the body from here?

A

At the lungs blood had to pass through tiny capillaries in the lungs in order to present a large surface area for gas exchange.

As it flows through capillaries there is a very large drop in blood pressure so the blood flow to the rest of the body would be very slow.

To increase blood pressure before it is distributed to the rest of the body the oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart again (through the pulmonary vein) where it’s pressure increases and it is then pumped to the rest of the body through the aorta.

86
Q

Why does the right ventricle have a thinner wall than the left ventricle?

A

It only pumps blood to the lungs whereas the left ventricle pumps it to the rest of the body (so has a muscular wall)

87
Q

Why does the left ventricle have a thicker muscular wall?

A

Pumps blood to rest of body

So helps it to contract to create enough pressure to pump it.

88
Q

Which side of the heart deals with which type (oxy or deoxy blood)?

A

Right side - deoxygenated blood pumped to lungs

Left side - oxygenated blood comes from lungs and is then pumped to the rest of the body

89
Q

Aortopulmonary window

A

Hole connecting the aorta and the pulmonary artery

90
Q

What do arteries usually carry

A

Oxygenated blood AWAY from heart

91
Q

What do veins usually carry

A

Deoxygenated blood TOWARDS heart

92
Q

Aorta

A

Connected to left ventricle

Carries oxygenated blood to all parts of body except lungs

93
Q

Vena cava

A

Connected to right atrium

Carries deoxygenated blood from tissues to heart

94
Q

Pulmonary artery

A

Carries deoxygenated blood (from right atrium) to the lungs

Unusual for artery it carries deoxygenated blood

95
Q

Pulmonary vein

A

Connected to left atrium

Carries oxygenated blood form the lungs to then go to rest of body

Unusual for vein it carries oxygenated blood

96
Q

How is the heart muscle supplied oxygen?

A

Coronary arteries branch off from the aorta shortly after it leaves the heart

Carries oxygen for heart muscle cells to respire

97
Q

Blockage of coronary arteries can lead to

A

myocardial infarction

98
Q

4 cardiovascular disease risk factors

A

Smoking
High blood pressure
Blood cholesterol
Diet

99
Q

Smoking (CO)

A

1) CO binds irreversibly to the Hb in red blood cells reducing capacity of oxygen they can carry. Heart must work harder to supply the same amount of oxygen to tissue. Leads to raised blood pressure = increased risk of strokes + CHD.
Insufficient supply of oxygen to heart muscle during exercise = angina/myocardial infarction

100
Q

Smoking (3)

A

Carbon monoxide

Nicotine

Decreases antioxidants

101
Q

Smoking (nicotine)

A

Increases adrenaline production which increase heart rate raising blood pressure = increased risk of CHD and strokes

Nicotine makes platelets more sticky so higher risk of thrombosis and higher risk of strokes/heart attacks.

102
Q

Smoking (antioxidants)

A

Antioxidants which are important for protecting cells from damage are decreased = cell damage in coronary artery wall more likely = atheroma formation

103
Q

What can high blood pressure be caused by?

A

If genes cause high blood pressure then lifestyle won’t change this

Excessive prolonged stress, certain diets and lack of exercise

104
Q

What happens if blood flows at high pressures in the arteries?

A

Heart must work harder to pump blood into arteries

Higher blood pressure in arteries means more likely to develop weakening of walls (aneurysm) and haemorrhage

To resist high blood pressures arterial walls may thicken, becoming harder and restricting blood flow.

105
Q

How is cholesterol carried in the blood plasma?

A

Tiny spheres of lipoproteins

106
Q

Heavy density lipoproteins

A

Remove cholesterol from tissues and transport it to the liver to be excreted

(Helped protect arteries from heart disease because they remove fats)

107
Q

Low density lipoproteins

A

Transport cholesterol from the liver to the tissues

Bad cholesterol

108
Q

How does high cholesterol level increase blood pressure?

A

High cholesterol levels mean more cholesterol is unloaded by low density lipoproteins (transport from liver to tissue) into the tissue in the arterial walls = arteries more restricted so higher blood pressures and risk of CHD + can lead to atheromas

109
Q

Talk about diet and risk of heart disease

A

High levels of salt increase blood pressure

Foods that act as antioxidants (vitamin C and dietary fibre) reduce risk of heart disease

110
Q

Heart (4 features)

A
  • encapsulated by double layer of tough inelastic membranes called the pericardium
  • pericardium fluid secreted between membranes to allow them to move over each other easily
  • pericardium protects heart from over expansion caused by elastic recoil when it is beating very fast
  • septum becomes rigid just before the heart contracts
111
Q

What does the pericardium protect the heart from?

A

Over expansion caused by elastic recoil when the heart is beating very fast

112
Q

What happens to the septum just before the heat contracts?

A

It becomes rigid

113
Q

How many flaps does the bi and tri cuspid valves have ?

A

Bicuspid = two flaps

Tricuspid = three flaps

114
Q

The cardiac muscle is …

A

Myogenic

contraction originates from within the muscle itself rather than from nervous impulses from the outside - neurogenic

115
Q

Where are the tendinous chords attached and what do they do?

A

Tendinous chords attached to papillary muscles

Stop the valves from turning inside out

116
Q

What do papillary muscles do to the tendinous chords?

A

Increase the tension of the tendinous chords so they can resist the powerful pressure of blood trying to flow backwards against tightly shut valves

117
Q

What do valves do?

A

Maintain the one way flow of blood

Prevent back flow of blood when blood pressure in ventricles becomes higher than blood pressure in the atria

118
Q

What is the ‘lub’ ‘dub’ sound you hear in a stethoscope produced by?

A

Valves closing = ‘lub’ sound

119
Q

What do the vena cava do each heart beat ?

A

Construct so that blood doesn’t flow back into the veins

AQA A level Biology (36 decks)

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