Intelligence

Question 1

What is psychometrics?

Answer 1

Branch of psychology which measures individual differences

Question 2

What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?

Answer 2

Focusses on individual differences in performance on mental ability tests​

Underlying assumption is that interrelationships of test scores reveal the overall structure of intelligence​

Identifies factors of intelligence

Question 3

What is the difference between early and contemporary psychometric models of intelligence? Provide early years

Answer 3

Early models where in debate. Spearman (1927) found one general factor, g (generality of intelligence) and Thurstone (1938) found several broad factors (differences in intelligence abilities). The conflict was resolved by contemporary models which are hierarchal in structure and helpbridge the gap between Spearman and Thurstone’s theories.

Question 4

What are the 3 relevant hierarchal theories of intelligence?

Answer 4

The extended theory of fluid and crystallised intelligence​ (Horn)

The three stratum model​ (Carrol,1993)

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities​

Two of the models are older (1 & 2), but still worth including as they have been continually updated to reflect changes in research.​

Question 5

What are implicit theories of intelligence and which study support them?

Answer 5

Theories are theories of what we think intelligence is based on our own experiences. Sternberg (1981) found a strong correlation between experts and lay people’s implicit definitions of intelligence. However, experts emphasised motivation and lay people emphasised social competence

Question 6

What are the strengths and weaknesses of implicit theories?

Answer 6

limitations:
Implicit theories provide a framework rather than an account of intelligence (no structure/relations)​
Lack of specificity (open to interpretation)​
Is there a gap between what intelligence actually is and what we think it is? (e.g. creativity)​
The normative group is poorly defined (e.g. when are you intelligent? What is the cut-off point?)​

strengths:
Robert Sternberg: 4 main reasons​
Implicit theories of intelligence drive the way we perceive and evaluate our own and others’ intelligence​
Implicit theories give rise to explicit theories​
Implicit theories can be useful if we suspect an existing explicit theory is wrong​
Understanding implicit theories can help to elucidate developmental and cross-cultural differences

Question 7

what are explicit theories of intelligence?

Answer 7

Based on scientific evidence and models of two types: differential and cognitive
Differential theories: identify a group of core mental skills (i.e. what intelligence is made up of)​
Cognitive theories: identify mental process involved in carrying out intellectual activities (i.e. how intelligence operates)

Question 8

What are the strengths and limitations of explicit theories?

Answer 8

Strengths:
Provide detail of what intelligence is and how it might operates​
More objective​
Useful in stimulating discussion thereby furthering academic development of intelligence​
Inform policy and practice

Sternberg (1985) proposed 4 limitations:
Tasks of dubitable ecological validity​
Inattention to the contexts in which intelligent behaviour occurs​
Failure to provide an explicit basis for the selection of tasks

Question 9

Who is Spearman and what is g?

Answer 9

Spearman (1920s) conducted a variety of mental tests such as math and vocabulary based tests. He found that different mental abilities were positively correlated and therefore theorised that there was an underlying general intelligence factor, or g. He noted that there a specific mental abilities that vary among the population but that correlation of specific abilities was a result of g.
The general ability factor ‘g’ has been confirmed consistently over the last century​. ‘g’ remains the predominant conception of intelligence and is the basis for more than 70 IQ tests​

Question 10

What is factor analysis?

Answer 10

Factor analysis is a data reduction technique​
Helps us identify patterns of relationships (correlations) between groups of variables​

Question 11

Provide a study that supports ‘g’?

Answer 11

Animals also seem to show a kind of ‘g’​.
e.g. Galsworthy et al., (2005)
research on mice: different cognitive tasks (e.g. problem solving) with varying levels of motivation, stress​
Suggests intelligence is not merely a product of language​
Johnson and Bouchard (2005) found unequivocal evidence for g

Question 12

The WAIS is one of the most common methods of measuring IQ. What type of theoretical approach does it reflect?

Answer 12

the generality of intelligence, though it recognises multiple dimensions of intelligence, it does not measure multiple intelligences

Question 13

Who was Thurstone and what did he say about intelligence?

Answer 13

Thurstone (1930) used factor analysis to identify 7 primary mental abilities including perceptual speed and word fluency. His theory supports the approach that there are differences in intelligence abilities.

Question 14

What are the strengths and limitations of Thurstones model?

Answer 14

Thurstone first to suggest many different intelligences
Mahoney (2011) found a high correlation between Thurstone’s 7 primary abilities which suggests that g is present.
Cattel (1978) found a different number of mental abilities

Question 15

What is Gf-Gc theory?

Answer 15

Cattel (1940s) spilt Spearmans g into fluid and crystallised intelligence.
Fluid represents information processing and reasoning ability. hardware​/biology
Crystallised is used to acquire, retain, organise and conceptualise information. software​/environmental
- have different trajectories through a lifetime​
Gf declines with age as the brain’s efficiency declines​
Gc may increase with more cultural exposure and experiences​

Question 16

What is the three stratum model?

Answer 16

Carrol: (1993) proposed a hierarchical theory of intelligence, The Three Stratum Model of Human Cognitive Abilities. Influences by Cattle-Horn theory. Carrol researched using much more representative samples of the population with all the relevant data that had been gathered on intelligence testing to date at that time. Stratum 1: specific abilities. Stratum 2: 8 broad factors arising from specific abilities. Stratum 3: general level of intelligence, like ‘g’. Brought together many different previous theories.

Question 17

What is CHC theory?

Answer 17

Cattel-Horn-Carrol Theory: captured the similarities between Gf and Gc theory and the 3 Stratum Model. Stratum 2 with the broad factors deemed most important. Main differences between the two models:

Three stratum theory recognises ‘g’, Gf-Gc theory doesn’t

Three stratum theory doesn’t have a distinct factor for quantitative knowledge, Gf-Gc theory does

Three stratum theory incorporates reading and writing abilities under Gc, Gf-Gc theory includes these abilities as separate

Three stratum theory combines short and long-term memory into one general memory factor, Gf-Gc theory has them as separate

The early CHC initially did not include ‘g’ . ‘g’ doesn’t help with assessment and interpretation across batteries of questionnaires. ‘g’ doesn’t help with the selection of diagnostic tools for pupils suspected of having learning disorders.

Latest version of the CHC does include ‘g’

Stratum 2 is the most important level. Early version contained 10 broad abilities, latest version has 16 . These abilities represent all sensory modalities

Question 18

What is the difference between hot and cold intelligences?

Answer 18

Cold intelligences are traditional cognitive abilities such as maths and logic. Hot intelligences are more inter and intra personal and relate to emotional intelligence, social competence and practical skills. Hot intelligences are sought after in the workplace.

Question 19

What is social intelligence?

Answer 19

Thorndike (1920) conceptualised social intelligence in 2 way, the ability to manage others and act wisely in relationships.

Question 20

Can social intelligence be measured?

Answer 20

Ford & Tisak (1983) designed and tested a psychometrically coherent social intelligence scale in a sample of 600 students​. They found 5 dimensions, shown to be largely unrelated to measures of verbal and abstract intelligence​
Barnes & Sternberg (1989): suggested 2 dimensions​
Schneider et al. (1996): 7 dimensions

Question 21

What is the difference between the IQ and the deviation IQ?

Answer 21

IQ of intelligence quotient was originally created to measure children’s intelligence in order to identify learning difficulties. IQ was calculated by divided the child’s mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100. IQ however loses it relevance when testing adults. Deviation IQ is a measurement of intelligence which compares a participants score with the average of representational sample. Deviation IQ exists on a bell curve like many other constructs with most people’s intelligence central in the curve.

Question 22

What is the extended theory of Gc-Gf?

Answer 22

Horn was the first to test Cattel’s theory empirically (was his student). He extended the Cattel-Horn theory from a 2 factor model of Gf and Gc to an 8-factor model.

Question 23

Is intelligence stable over time within the group? Provide a study to support.

Answer 23

Yes, there is stability in the rank ordering of intelligence i.e. those most intelligent will stay most intelligent as they age. The Moray House Study (1932; 1947) tested tens of thousands of participants at age 11 and then again at age 77. They found a correlation between the two time points of .6. Those that did well before did well again and vice versa.

Question 24

Is intelligence stable over time for the individual? Provide studies to support.

Answer 24

Yes and no.
Iowa State Army Alpha Study (Owens, 1957; Cunningham & Owens, 1983)​
Results:​ Verbal skills increased, Numerical skills declined, Reasoning skills declined (most affected factor)​
Conclusion: beginning of decline of overall functionality seen in our 50s, but most obvious effects seen in our 60s​

Seattle Longitudinal Study (1956-1991): to investigate the contribution of three factors to adult intelligence scores: chronological age, cohort (year of birth), and time of measurement (year of test)​
Main findings:​
There are cohort effects, i.e. later generations score higher than their predecessors at same age (Flynn effect)​
Longitudinal effect shows decline in inductive reasoning, spatial orientation, perceptual speed and verbal memory
Declines on 4 out of 6 factors were noted for both genders (verbal comprehension & recall not affected)​​

Timothy Salthouse believes evidence is for age affecting the general factor (g) in mental ability​
The decline in g is mostly caused by slowing of mental processing

Question 25

What predicts positive cognitive aging?

Answer 25

Having no cardiovascular or other chronic disease​ Not smoking​ Good nutrition​ Physical exercise​ Fewer white matter lesions in the brain (white matter communicates information between different brain regions)​ Environmental factors:​ Living in favourable environment mediated by high social class​ Living in complex and intellectually stimulating environment

Question 26

What is the Flynn effect?

Answer 26

Effect named after James Flynn who used patterns from 73 American studies to suggest a massive increase in intelligence between 1932 and 1978​ Generation rise in IQ by 18-20 points (SD = 15)​ This is seen across at least 14 different countries​ It is more substantial for Gf than Gc​ Highest in the Netherlands, below average in the​ UK, ceased in Sweden and reversed in No

Question 27

Is there evidence to suggest that there are differences in intelligence levels based on race?

Answer 27

There is evidence to suggest this. Asians higher IQ than whites, whites higher than African Americans. However, it is unclear why this is. Both race and intelligence are constructs that are used and interpreted differently. Therefore, the relationship between them should be treated with extreme caution. Massey (1980) conducted a national study and found that 80% of participants who identified themselves with another race, were categorised by the researcher as White​ Daley & Onwuegbuzie (2011): “ flawed constructs, flawed instruments, and flawed relationships yield flawed inferences and flawed educational and social policies” Lynn & Vanhanen (2002) found national differences in IQ​ between developing and developed countries. Lynn makes the argument that difference in IQ due to race is clear when we look at technological advancements of countries. Lynn's data is highly flawed however, most data was extrapolated and averaged through unscientific means.

Question 28

Is there evidence to suggest that men are more intelligent than women? ​

Answer 28

Seems to be evidence that there is little mean difference between men and women on general intelligence ​ Some evidence for differences on specific abilities​ Clear evidence of greater variability for men​ i.e. more scores at high and low ends

Question 29

How do genes and environment effect intelligence?

Answer 29

Bouchard & McGue (1981) Kin living together resemble one another in IQ more closely than those living apart​ Biological unrelated people living in the same family show some resemblance in IQ (but by adulthood, this correlation is essentially zero)​ Biologically related people living together resemble one another more than biologically unrelated people​ MZ twins resemble each other more than DZ twins​ Biologically related people living apart show some resemblance​ Plomin & Petrill (1997) - 50% of variance in IQ scores is due to genetics Genetic research provides the best evidence for the importance of environmental influences​. If heritability is 50%, that means the environment accounts for at least a proportion of the remaining 50% Champagne et al. (2003) showed that in rodents, variations in maternal grooming/licking of pups during the first week postpartum predicts the gene expression, physiology and behaviour of offspring Both heredity and environment contribute to intelligence​ Heredity and environment interact in various ways​ Extremely poor as well as highly enriched environments can interfere with the realization of a person's intelligence, regardless of the person's genetics​ Although most would accept a causal role of genetics, the exact genetic link and how it operates is very far from being understood​ It is difficult to pin-down single, identifiable elements of the environment which directly influence IQ scores. Several environmental factors influence intelligence such as Family environment​, Culture​, School/education​, Biological variables

Question 30

What is cognitive epidemiology?

Answer 30

Study of how psychometric intelligence is a significant correlate of death, illness and health outcomes​

Question 31

Studies providing evidence for a relationship between intelligence and death?

Answer 31

Whalley & Deary (2001)​ Traced 79% (2230 individuals) who had taken the original Moray House Test in 1932 to see how many had died before 1st January 1997. Individuals who had died before 1st January 1997 had a significantly lower mean IQ aged 11 years than individuals who were alive or untraced (15 IQ points. Suggested explanations: Intelligence is a record of perinatal and childhood insults​ Intelligence is a marker for good general system integrity​ Intelligence is a predictor of safer occupational or other environments​ Intelligence is a predictor of health behaviours and management Swedish Conscription Study: followed 1.3 million conscripted men across their lives. (Batty et al., 2009) 1 SD disadvantage in intelligence at conscription was associated with a 32% increased risk of death from all causes 1 SD advantage in intelligence at conscription was associated with a 51% reduction in risk of being murdered​ A decade of work in cognitive epidemiology has generated consistent evidence that associations exist between lower early life intelligence and mortality, illness, and illness behaviours​ Still not clear, however, if impact of intelligence on death and specific diseases is mediated by health behaviours and physiological risk factors​ Also difficult to directly pinpoint the role of education, income, social class