Introduction Flashcards
1
Q
Eponyms
A
Terms incorporating names of people. Trying to move from it but might need to know for clinical
2
Q
Anatomical position
A
Standing upright.
Head, gaze, and toes directed forward.
Arms adjacent to sides. Palms facing anterior ley.
Lower limbs close together and feet parallel
3
Q
Median plane
A
Vertical anterioposterior plane passing longitudinally through mid lines of head, neck and trunk.
4
Q
Sagittal
A
Vertical planes passing through body parallel to median plane.
5
Q
Frontal / coronal
A
Vertical plane passing through body at right angles to median plane
6
Q
Transverse plane
A
Horizontal plane passing through body at right angles to median and frontal planes
7
Q
Superficial
A
Nearer to surface
8
Q
Deep
A
Further from surface
9
Q
Posterior / dorsal
A
Nearer to back
10
Q
Interior / ventral
A
Nearer to front.
11
Q
Dorsal
A
Superior foot surface
12
Q
Plantar
A
Inferior foot surface (sole)
13
Q
Vertex
A
Topmost point of cranium
14
Q
Caudal
A
Toward foot/ tail region
15
Q
Rostral
A
Used instead of anterior when describing parts of brain
Latin for beak
16
Q
Dorsum
A
Refers to superior aspect of any part that protrudes anteriorly from body.
17
Q
Ipsilateral
A
Same side of body
18
Q
Contra lateral
A
Opposite sides of body
19
Q
Flexion
A
Bending / decreasing angle between bones/ parts of body
20
Q
Extension
A
Straightening / increasing angle between bones / body parts
21
Q
Dorsiflexion
A
Flexion at ankle joint.
Flexing foot.
22
Q
Plantar flexion
A
Flexion at ankle joint.
Pointing toes
23
Q
Abduction
A
Moving away from medial plane
24
Q
Adduction
A
Moving toward median plane.
25
Lateral flexion
| Lateral bending.
Special forms of abduction for only neck and trunk.
26
Circumduction.
Circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extension and adduction.
Foot in circle
27
Rotation
Turning/ revolving part of body around a longitudinal axis.
| Turning head to face sideways.
28
Medial rotation
Brings anterior surface of limb closer to median plane
| Duck walk.
29
Lateral rotation
| External rotation
Takes anterior surface away from medial plane
| Pigeon toed
30
Pronation
Rotates radius medically so palm faces posteriorly
31
Supination
Rotates radius laterally
| Palm faces anteriorly.
32
Eversion
Moves sole of foot away from median plane, turning sole laterally.
Fully everted and dorsiflexed
33
Inversion
Moves sole of foot toward median plane
| Fully inverted > plantar flexed.
34
Opposition
Movement which pad of 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit
Pinch.
35
Reposition
Describes movement of 1st digit from opposition to its anatomical position.
36
Protrusion
Movement anteriorly
| Protruding lips
37
Retrusion
Movement posterioly
| Returning tongue
38
Protraction
Anterolateral movement of scapula
39
Retraction
Posteromedial movement of scapula
40
Elevation
Raises/ moves part superiorly
| Shrug shoulders.
41
Depression
Lowers/ moves part inferiority
| Upper eyelid closes.
42
Congenital anomaly
| Birth defect
Variation often evident at birth or soon afterward due to aberrant form or function.
43
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Skin functions
(6)
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Provides protection from environment
Containment for body structures and organs
Prevent dehydration
Thermal regulation
Sensation
Synthesis and storage of vitamin d
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44
Layers of skin
Epidermis
Superficial cellular layer
Dermis
45
Epidermis
Keratinized epithelium.
No blood vessels or lymphatic
Nourished by dermis
Few nerve terminals penetrate epidermis
46
Dermis
Dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers
Provide skin tone and strength of skin
Predominant pattern of collagen fibers determines characteristic tension lines
Supplied by arteries, enter deep surface to form plexus
Most nerve terminals housed here.
Sensitive to touch, pain, irritation, and temperature
47
Tension line
Cleavage lines
Langer lines
Spiral longitudinally in limbs and run transversely in neck and trunk.
Determined by predominant pattern of collagen fibers.
48
Subcutaneous tissue
Between dermis and underlying deep fascia.
Composed mostly of loose connective tissue and stored fat.
Contains sweat glands, superficial blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and cutaneous nerves.
Provides most of body’s fat storage. (Varies in sites and persons)
49
Skin ligaments
Numerous small fibrous bands extend through subcutaneous tissue and attach deep surface of dermis to deep fascia.
50
Erythema
Abnormally red skin.
Capillaries engorged.
Can be due to skin injury, exposure to excess hear, infection, inflammation, or allergic reaction
51
Superficial lacerations
Penetrate epidermis and maybe superficial dermis.
| Bleed but don’t interrupt continuity of dermis
52
Deep laceration
Penetrate deep layer, extending into subcutaneous tissue or beyond
Gape and require approximation of cut edges of dermis (suturing) to minimize scarring
53
Superficial burn
Damage is limited to the epidermis
Symptoms include erythema, pain, edema, desquamation of superficial layer. Layer quickly replaced from basal layer without scarring.
54
Partial thickness burn
Epidermis and superficial dermis are damaged with blistering or loss.
Nerve endings damaged.
Sweat glands and hair follicles are not damaged and can provide source of replacement cells for basal layer of epidermis
Healing occurs slowly (3 weeks to several months) leaving some scarring and some contracture but usually complete.
55
Full thickness burn
Entire thickness of skin is damaged and often subcutaneous tissue too
Marked edema
Destroyed sensory endings.
Minor degree healing may begin at edges, but open ulcerated portions require skin grafting.
56
4th degree burn
Damage extends through entire thickness into underlying fascia, muscle or bone.
Life threatening.
57
Factors that increase risk of death from burn injury
Older than 60
Partial thickness and full thickness burns over 40% of body
Presence of inhalation injury
58
Burn Percentages
| Anterior head and neck
4.5%
59
Burn Percentages
| Anterior shoulders, arms, forearms and hands
9%
60
Burn Percentages
| Anterior thighs, legs and feet
18%
61
Burn Percentages
| Anterior trunk
18%
62
Burn Percentages
| Anterior right leg
9%
63
Burn Percentages
| Anterior and posterior head and neck
9%
64
Burn Percentages
| Anterior and posterior arms, fore arms, and hands
18%
65
Burn percentages
| Anterior and posterior trunk
36%
66
Burn percentages
| Anterior and posterior thighs, legs and feet
36%
67
Burn percentages
| Perineum
1%
68
Fascias
Constitute wrapping, packaging and insulating materials of deep structures of body.
Under subcutaneous tissue
69
Deep fascia
Dense organized connective tissue layer
Devoid of fat.
Covers most of body parallel and deep to skin and subcutaneous tissue
Thickness varies in body (absent in face)
70
Fascial compartments
Groups of muscles with similar functions usually sharing same nerve supply house together.
Separated by inter muscular septa that extend from fascial sleeve to attach to bones
71
Retinaculum
Thick deep fascia near certain joints (wrist/ankle) to hold tendons in place where cross joint during flexion/extension.
Prevents shortcuts
72
Subserous fascia
Varying amounts of fatty tissue
Lies between internal surfaces of musculoskeletal walls and serous membranes
Endothoracic fascia example
73
Bursae
Closed sacs of serous membrane. Normally collapsed.
Their walls contain thin film of lubricated fluid that is secreted by enclosed membranes.
When wall is interrupted at any point, become realized spaces
Enable one structure to move more freely over another
74
Subcutaneous bursae
Subcutaneous tissue between skin and bony prominence (elbow)
75
Subfascial bursae
Lies beneath deep fascia
76
Subtendinous bursae
Facilitate movement of tendons over bone
77
Synovial tendon sheaths
Specialized type of elongated bursae that wrap around tendons, usually enclosing them as they transverse osseofibrous tunnels that anchor tendons in place.
78
Visceral layer
Inner layer of serous sac
79
Parietal later
Outer layer closest to body wall
80
Cartilage
Resilient semirigid form of connective tissue that forms parts of skeleton where more flexibility is required.
A
81
Articular cartilage
Provides smooth low friction gliding surfaces for free movement.
On articulating surfaces of bones in synovial joint
82
Bone
Highly specialized hard form of connective tissue
83
Bone functions
| 5
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Support for body
Protection for vital organs
Mechanical basis for movement
Storage for slats
Continuous supply of new blood cells (produced by marrow)
```
84
Periosteum
Fibrous connective tissue covering surrounding bone.
Nourishes external aspects of skeletal tissue. Capable of laying down more cartilage or nome. Provide attachment point for tendon and ligaments
85
Perichondrium
Connective tissue surrounding cartilage
Nourshed external aspects of skeletal tissue. Capable of laying down more cartilage
Provides attachment points for tendons/ ligaments
86
Compact bone
Provides strength for weight bearing.
| In long bones greatest near middle of shaft where bones are liable to buckle.
87
Capitulum
Small around articular head
88
Condyle
Rounded knuckle like articular area.
| Often in pairs
89
Crest
Ridge of bone
90
Epicondyle
Eminence superior/ adjacent to condyle
91
Facet
Smooth flat area usually covered with cartilage where bone articulates with another
92
Foramen
Passage through bone
93
Fossa
Hollow/depressed area
94
Groove
Elongated depression/furrow
95
Head
Large round articular end
96
Line/ridge
Linear elevation
97
Malleolus
Rounded process
98
Neck
Relatively narrow portion proximal to head
99
Notch
Indentation at edge of bone
100
Process
Extension/projection serving particular purpose or having characteristic shape or extending in particular direction
101
Protuberance
Bulge/ projection of bone
102
Shaft
Diaphysis / body of long bone
103
Spine
Thorn like process
104
Trochanter
Large blunt elevation
105
Trochlea
Spool like articular process. Process that acts as a pulley
106
Tuberosity
Large rounded elevation
107
Processes bone develops
Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral ossification
Histology same by either process
108
Intramembranous ossification
| Membranous bone formation
Mesenchymal bones form during embryonic period and direct ossification of mesenchyme begins in fetal period
109
Endochondral ossification
| Cartilaginous bone formation
Cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme during fetal period and bone subsequently replaces more of cartilage
110
Haversian systems
House small blood vessels so blood reaches osteocytes in compact bone.
111
Accessory bones
Develop when additional ossification centers appear and form extra bones.
Fail to fuse with main bone and gives appearance of extra bone.
Common in foot
112
Heterotropic vones
Bones sometimes form in soft tissue where not normally present.
Horse riders in thigh
113
Reduction of fracture
Broken ends brought back together to approximate original position
114
Steps to bone healing
Fibroblasts proliferate and secrete collagen
Which form collar of callus that holds bones together
Bone remodeling occurs
Callus calcifies
Eventually callus is resorbed and replaced by bone
115
Green stick fracture
Incomplete breaks caused by bending of bones
116
Osteoporosis
Reduction in quantity of bone or atrophy of skeletal tissue.
During aging process organic and inorganic components decrease and bones become more brittle, lose elasticity and fracture easily
117
Lines of arrested growth
Proliferation of cartilage at metaphysis
Slows down during starvation/illness but degeneration of cartilage cells continues. Produces dense line of provisional calcification.
Lines later become bone with thickened trabeculae.
118
Differences between bone fractures and displaced epiphyseal plate
Edges of diaphysis and epiphysis are smoothly curved in region of epiphyseal plate.
Bone fractures leave sharp, uneven edge to bone injury.
In adults usually causes fracture but in child usually displacement of epiphyses.
119
Synovial joints
United by joint capsule (fibrous layer) that encloses joint and contains synovial fluid.
Provides free movement between the bones they form.
Reinforced by accessory ligaments.
120
Fibrous joints
United by fibrous tissue
| Amount of movement depends on length of fibers uniting bones
121
Classes of joints
| Based on manner/type of material
Synovial
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
122
Sydesmosis joint
Unites bones with a sheet of fibrous tissue (either a ligament or fibrous membrane)
Partially moveable.
Ex: interosseous membrane in forearm that joins radius and ulna
123
Dentó-alveolar syndesmosis
Fibrous joint with a peg like process that fits into a socket
Ex: roots of tooth and alveolar process of jaw
Mobility means pathological state affecting supporting tissues
124
Cartilaginous joints
United by hyaline/ cartilage
125
Primary cartilaginous joint
| Synchondroses
Bones united by hyaline cartilage
Permits slight bending during early life
Usually temporary unions permit growth in long bone
126
Secondary cartilaginous joints
| Symphyses
Strong, slightly moveable joints joined by fibrocartilage
Ex: intervertebral disc
Provide shock absorption, strength and flexibility
127
Joints classified according to shape and/or movement
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Plane
Hinge
Saddle
Condyloid
Ball and socket
Pivot
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128
Plane joints
Permit guiding/sliding movement
Opposed surfaces are flat/ nearly flat with limited movement by tight joint capsules
Ex: acromioclavicular joint
129
Hinge joints
Permit flexion and extension only
Movements that occur in one plane around a single axis
Uniaxial joints
Joint capsule is thin and lac anteriorly and posteriorly where movement happens.
Bones are joined by strong lateral ligaments
Ex: elbow
130
Saddle joints
Permit abduction and adduction, as well as flexion and extension and circumduction
2 axes at right angles
Biaxial joint
Ex: carpometacarpal joint
131
Condyloid joint
Permit flexion, extension, adduction and abduction
Movement in one (sagittal) plane is greater than other.
Circumduction is more restricted
Ex: metocarpopharyngeal joint
132
Ball and socket joint
Allow movement in multiple aces and planes
Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, medial and lateral rotation, and circumduction
Multiaxial joints
Spheroid also surface of one bone moves in socket of another
Ex: hip
133
Pivot joint
Permits rotation around central axis
Uniaxial
Rounded process of bone rotates with in sleeve/ring
Ex: atlas and dens
134
How do joints receive blood
Receive blood from articulate arteries from vessels around joint
Arteries often anastomose to form networks to ensure blood supply to and across joint in joint’s various positions
135
Hutton law
States nerves supplying joint also supply muscles moving the joint and the skin covering distal attachments
136
Where are pain fibers found in joints?
Pain fibers are numerous in fibrous layer of joint capsule and ligaments
137
How is muscle length calculated
Distance between attachments
138
Functions of muscular system
Locomotion
Provide support and form
Provide heat
139
Flat muscles
Parallel fibers often with aponeurosis
| Ex: sartorius
140
Pennate muscles
Feather like in arrangement of fascicles
Uni, bi or multipennate
Ex: rectus femoris, deltoid
141
Fusiform muscles
Spindle shaped with round thick belly and tapered ends
| Ex: biceps brachii
142
Convergent muscles
Arise from broad area and converge to form single tendon
| Ex: pectoralis major
143
Quadrate muscles
Have 4 equal sides
| Ex: rectus abdominus
144
Circular/ sphincteral muscles
Surround opening/orifice
Constricts when contracted
Ex: orbicularis oculi
145
Multiheaded / multibellied
More than 1 head of attachment or more than 1 contractile body
Ex: triceps and gastrocnemius
146
Muscle origin
Usually proximal end of muscle
| Remains fixed during contraction
147
Muscle insertion
Usually the distal end
| Moveable
148
Tonic contraction / muscle tone
Slight contraction. Not active resistance nor produces movement.
Gives firmness
Assists stability of joints while keeping ready to respond.
149
Isotonic contraction
Muscle changes length > movement
150
Isometric contraction
Muscle length stays that same
No movement
Force is increased above tonic levels to resist gravity/ force
Ex: upright posture
151
Concentric contraction
Type of isotonic contraction
| Movement because of muscle shortening
152
Eccentric contraction
Type of isotonic contraction
Contracting muscle lengthens and undergoes controlled and gradual relaxation while continually exerting a diminishing force
Requires less metabolic energy at same load but with max contractions
Capable of generating higher tension levels
153
Prime mover/ agonist
Main muscle responsible for specific movement
Contracts concentrically doing most of work required.
Usually only 1
154
Fixator
Steadies proximal parts of limb through isometric contraption while movement occurs at distal parts
155
Synergistic
Complements agonist directly
Directly - weak movement
Indirectly - as fixator of intervening joint when agonist passes over more than 1 joint
156
Antagonist
Opposes action of another.
| Eccentrically contracts as agonist concentrically contracts.
157
Shunt muscle
Acts to maintain contact between articulate surfaces of joint it crosses
158
Spurt muscle
More oblique muscle lines
| If pull is oriented towards the bone it moves it is more capable of rapid and efficient movement
159
Skeletal striated muscle division
Cannot divide
| Can be replaced by fiber derived from satellite cells.
160
Pacemaker
ANS
161
Cardiac muscle blood supply
Twice as rich as skeletal muscle because of high activity
162
Cardiac cell division
Cells dont divide.
No equivalent of satellite cells
No new cardiac cells
163
Smooth muscles locations
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In tunica media
In all vascularized tissue
In muscular Parts of alimentary tract
In skin - arector pili
In eyeball - lens and pupils size
```
164
Smooth muscle cells characteristics
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No striations
Directly innervated by ANS
Control initiated by hormones or local stimuli
Delayed and leisurely contraction
Partial contraction can last longer
```
165
Blood vessel layers
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica adventitia
166
Tunica intima
Single layer epithelial cells (epithelium)
Supported by delicate connective tissue
Inner lining of blood vessels
Capillaries are only this layer
167
Tunic media
Middle layer of blood vessels
Smooth muscle
Varies in thickness
168
Tunica adventitia
Outer layer of blood vessels
| Connective tissue
169
Types of arteries
Large elastic / conducting arteries
Medium muscular / distributing arteries
Small arteries / arterioles
170
Large elastic / conducting arteries
Many elastic layers in walls to expand to minimize pressure changes
171
Why do arteries have many elastic layers in them?
To expand to minimize pressure changes as blood is pumped
| Aorta, pulmonary trunk.
172
Medium muscular / distributing arteries
Walls mainly smooth muscle fibers
Vasoconstriction ability - regulates blood flow
Pulsing contractions to propel blood to various parts
Brachial and femoral arteries
173
Which layer of the blood vessel has the ability of vasoconstriction and why?
Medium muscular / distributing arteries because it is mainly made of smooth muscle fibers.
174
What is the point of anastomoses in arteries?
The multiple branches create other pathways in case of a blockage
175
True terminal arteries
Arteries that don’t anastomose with adjacent arteries
| Retinal arteries
176
Why do veins have a dark blue appearance
They return low oxygen blood
177
What are some ways the body has to drive blood back to the heart
```
AV pump
Accompanying veins
Valves
Valvular mechanism
Milking muscles
```
178
Blood from distal limbs is usually colder than from the heart, how does the body warm it?
Arteries are surrounded by veins in branching network. Works as countercurrent heat exchanger.
179
How do medium veins make it easier for musculovenous pump to overcome force of gravity to return blood to heart?
1. Venous valves - when valvular sinuses are full valves close over lumen preventing back flow
2. Valvular mechanism - breaks columns of blood into shorter segments, reducing back pressure
180
What is special about the pulmonary vein
Carries oxygen rich blood to heart
181
Is the tunica media thinner in arteries or veins
Veins. Tunica media is mainly elastic fibers that expand to minimize pressure changes - more relevant in arteries because of pumping.
182
Vein sizes
Venues
Medium
Large
183
Venues
Smallest
Unnamed
Unite to form venous plexuses
Drain capillary beds
184
Medium veins
Drain venous plexuses
| Have valves
185
Venous valves
Passive cusps/ flaps of endothelium with valvular sinuses that fill from above.
186
Large veins characteristics
Wide longitudinal smooth muscle and well developed tunic adventitia
187
What are differences between arteries and veins besides the valves?
Veins are more abundant than arteries, their walls are thinner but their diameters are larger.
188
Why do veins have thin walls
Thin walls allow for expansion. So blood can return to heart when impeded by compression or internal pressure such as the valsalva maneuver
189
Percentages of blood in arteries vs veins
20% of blood in arteries
| 80% of blood in veins
190
Accompanying veins
Multiple veins around deep artery
Surround in irregular branching network.
Serves as countercurrent heat exchanger
191
Arteriovenous pump
Accompanying veins are in unyielding vascular sheath. As artery expands during heart contraction the veins stretch and flatten, aids in driving blood back to the heart
192
What is muscle milking
Expansion of skeletal muscle compresses veins.
193
Capillaries
Simple endothelial tubes connecting vein and artery sides.
| Allow exchange of materials with extracellular fluid.
194
The starling hypothesis is largely accepted and explains how the exchange happens in the capillary bed. Explain.
Hydrostatic pressure in arterioles forces blood through the capillary bed and forces fluid containing oxygen, nutrients, and cellular materials out of blood at arterial end (upstream).
Downstream at venous end most of the ECF (with waste and carbon dioxide) is reabsorbed into blood as a result of osmotic pressure from higher concentration of proteins.
195
Arteriovenular anastomoses
Sites of communication
Direct communication between small arterioles and venules proximal to capillary beds
Permit blood to pass directly from artery to vein without going through the capillary.
196
Portal venous system
Venous system linking 2 capillary beds before returning to the heart
Hepatic portal system
197
Hepatic portal system
Venous system of nutrient rich blood passes capillary beds of alimentary tract to capillary beds of liver
Portal venous system
198
Atherosclerosis
Form of arteriosclerosis buildup of fat in arterial walls, calcium deposits
For as atheromatous plaque on intimal surfaces of arteries - thrombosis, embolus
Consequences - ischemia, infarction
199
What are varicose veins, and what contributes to them?
As get older veins lose elasticity and become weak
Abnormally twisted swollen twisted vein.
Valve cusps are destroyed by inflammation or they don’t meet (incompetent valves) - column of blood is unbroken > more pressure more problems
Incompetent fascia - incapable of containing expansion of contracting muscles > musculovenous pump is ineffective
200
Edema
Excess interstitial fluid that manifests as swelling
201
What would happen if there was no lymphatic system
Fluid that failed to be reabsopred by the capillaries would accumulate. Reverse osmosis would occur, and more fluid would enter the extracellular space resulting in edema
202
Lymphatic plexuses
Networks of lymphatic capillaries that originate in extracellular space of most tissues.
203
Why can bigger things such as bacteria, plasma proteins, cell debris, or even whole cells enter lymphatic capillaries but not blood capillaries?
Lymphatic capillaries are made of highly attenuated endothelium, lacking a basement membrane.
204
Lymphatic vessels / lymphatics
Thin walled vessels with abundant valves to drain lymph from capillaries
Vessels bulge where the valves are, giving a beaded appearance
205
Lymphatic trunks
Large collecting vessels receive lymph from multiple lymph vessels
206
Where are lymphatic vessels not found?
Lymphatic vessels are found everywhere except for teeth , bone marrow, bone, and CNS.
207
Since there are no lymphatic vessels in the CNS where does excess fluid go?
Excess tissues fluid of the CNS drains into the CSF
208
Lymph
Tissue fluid that enters the lymph capillaries.
Usually clear, watery and slightly yellow
Similar to blood plasma
209
Lymph nodes
Small masses of lymph tissue located along course of lymph vessels through which lymph is filtered on its way to the venous system.
210
Lymphocytes
Circulating cells of immune system that react against foreign materials
211
Lymphatic organs
Parts of the body that produce lymphocytes
Thymus
Red bone marrow
Spleen
Tonsils
Solitary and aggregated lymphoid nodules in alimentary tract
Appendix
212
Superficial lymphatic vessels
More numerous than veins in subcutaneous tissue.
Anastomose freely.
Converge toward and follow venous drainage
Drain into deep lymphatic vessels
213
Deep lymphatic vessels
Accompany arteries and receive the drainage of internal organs
214
Right lymphatic duct
Contains lymph from body’s right upper quadrant
Right side of head, neck, thorax and right upper limb.
At foot of neck enters junction of right internal jugular and right subclavian veins at right venous angle
215
Thoracic duct
Drains lymph from remainder of body lymphatic trunks draining lower half of body merge in abdomen, sometimes form dilated collecting sac or cistena chyli
From sac or merger, thoracic duct ascends into and through the thorax to enter left venous angle.
