Issues and Debates in Psychology Flashcards

Question

what are examples of culturally biased research?

Answer 1

milgram (1963) - all participants are american so the results cannot be generalised to other cultures, study is ethnocentric as they wanted to see if americans would be as obedient as germans possibly leading to discrimination against germans, individualist cultures are less likely to obey due to independent values zimbardo ( ) - all participants are american males so the results cannot be applied universally, it is also ethnocentric as only focused on americans.

Answer 2

led to the emergence of cultural psychology, this is the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experiences, cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach, which conducts research from within a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture, this suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and are taking steps to avoid it.

Answer 3

led to ethnic stereotyping, in 1981, gould explained how early army IQ tests were ethnocentric e.g. assuming the knowledge the soldiers would have of the american presidents, the poor results were not seen to reflect the poor research methods / techniques but rather to inform racist discourse of genetic inferiority deeming ethnic minorities as 'mentally unfit', they were denied educational opportunities as a result, this shows how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultural and ethnic groups. most influential studies are culturally bias, asch and milgram's original studies consisted of solely USA participants and when the studies were replicated in collectivist cultures, the findings were very different from individualist cultures, this suggests that knowledge of such topics, such as social influence, should only be applied to individualist cultures. -> (counterpoint): however, the increased media globalisation has led to the arguments that there is no longer a distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures, in 1999, takano and osaka found that 14/15 studies comparing the USA and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism which suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research.

Answer 4

it is an age-old debate about whether genetics (nature) plays a bigger role in determining a person's characteristics than lived experience and environmental factors (nurture).

Answer 5

it suggests that behaviour is innate and a result of genetics, all behaviour and characteristics are pre-determined (deterministic), all development is pre-wired from birth - people's behaviour / personality is relatively fixed.

Answer 6

they assume that biological / heredity (genes) are more important in determining, knowledge is innate.

Answer 7

genetic evidence for disorders like schizophrenia evolutionary arguments for mate preference neurotransmitter (dopamine / serotonin) and hormonal (testosterone) evidence for aggression twin studies: MZ twins often show higher concordance rates than DZ twins for behaviours and disorders despite both sets sharing environments

Answer 8

all behaviour is learnt from the environment and external forces, individuals are shaped by the environment - all behaviour is a result of learning therefore undesirable behaviour can be 'un-learned'.

Answer 9

they assume that learning (experience) is more important in determining behaviour , as knowledge comes from interaction with the world (the mind starts as a blank state).

Answer 10

social learning theory; bandura's bobo doll study demonstrates that behaviour can be learnt through interaction with the environment (nurture) behaviourist studies e.g. pavlov's dogs.

Answer 11

the degree to which two people are similar on a particular trait can be represented by a correlation coefficient (concordance) - provides an estimate about the extent to which a trait is inherited, called heritability (this is the proportion of differences between individuals in a population, with regards to a particular trait that is due to genetic variation) e.g. general figure for heritability in IQ = .5 (50% of IQ is determined by genes)

Answer 12

the idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two as any behaviour / characteristic arises from a combination of both, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other.

Answer 13

maguire et al (2000) taxi driver study; structure of the brain can alter in response to environmental factors showing how genetic factors link with environmental factors. attachment patterns between CG and infant are the result of a 2-way process, child's innate temperamnet will influence the way its parents respond to it; child's genetic personality has an impact on the relationship between their parents and how they parents react to such behaviour impact child's upbringing, therefore linking nature and nurture.

Answer 14

a theory that suggests a vulnerability to a behaviour such as a mental disorder (e.g. schizophrenia) is combined with a trigger to cause it to develop, and these vulnerabilities and stress triggers could be biological or environmental.

Answer 15

this is where there is a change in the genetic activity without actually changing the genes themselves, which occurs in response to a life experience (interaction with the environment), and these leave 'marks' on DNA (genes).

Answer 16

both the perspectives (nature and nurture) are deterministic, they just differ in what factors they suggest control behaviour - biological determinism for nature, environmental determinism for nurture.

Answer 17

there is real-world application, genetic counselling for e.g. OCD, lead by understanding of likelihood of development of such disorders and can be prevented. adoption studies separates the competing influences of nature and nurture; if adopted children are more similar to biological parents the nature is the bigger influence but if they are more similar to adoptive parents then nurture is the bigger influence, rhee and waldman (2002) found that genetic influences accoutned for 41% of variance in aggression. -> (counterpoint): plomin (1994) suggested that people create their own 'nurture' by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their 'nature'.

Answer 18

taking the nature, or nurture side of the argument could have negative consequences, for example suggesting that ‘biology is destiny’ could be used to justify different treatment of certain groups. Suggesting that behaviour is shaped by the environment may lead to attempts to control behaviour by environmental manipulation. it is too difficult to investigate the effects of nature and nurture due to the fact they are so closely linked (for example, twin pairs sharing genes and environments). - constructivism suggests that a person’s biology may influence them to choose their environment, which then further influences them (for example, choosing to spend time with certain people or watch certain media). It therefore becomes too difficult to decide the influences of nature and nurture.

Answer 19

the notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour / thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces.

Answer 20

the view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something.

Answer 21

it implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal and external events beyond our control.

Answer 22

the view that behaviour may be predictable (caused by internal / external factors) but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities (restricted free will).

Answer 23

biological, environmental and psychic

Answer 24

the belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control.

Answer 25

the belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.

Answer 26

the belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.

Answer 27

hard determinism - the behaviourist approach that humans are born on blank slates and everything happened is learnt so there is no possibility for free will. environmental determinism - behaviour is caused by environmental influences.

Answer 28

soft determinism - bandura suggests that there is some free will due to the choice of behaviours chosen to perform. environmental determinism - learning through vicarious reinforcement (external factors) suggests behaviour is caused by environmental influences. psychic determinism - unconscious conflicts / behaviours reflect mediational processes.

Answer 29

psychic determinism - biological structures influence mental processes - unconscious factors. hard determinism - implies that free will is not possible due to only considering biological factors. biological determinism - behaviour is caused by biological factors e.g. genetics.

Answer 30

psychic determinism - perception, memory and thinking cannot be observed as they are unconscious. soft determinism - the role of schema affects conscious decisions due to assumptions and inferences. biological determinism - the emergence of cognitive neuroscience suggests behaviour and decisions are determined by brain structures (biological factors).

Answer 31

psychic determinism - unconscious conflicts (id, ego, superego) control our behaviour. determinism - defense mechanisms are an unconscious attempt to preserve character / behaviour. hard determinism - free will is not possible due to role of only unconscious conflicts.

Answer 32

psychic & hard determinism - to reach full potential in the hierarchy of needs, people go to unjust lengths which can lead to negative behaviour to achieve. free will - self actualisation leads to a sense of control to reach full potential and actions determine outcome. biological determinism - physiological needs and safety and security suggests behaviours are innate to survive.

Answer 33

everyday experiences 'give the impression' that we are constantly exercising free will through the choices we make on any given day, this gives face validity to the concept of free will e.g. it makes sense. research also suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy, a study by roberts (2000) demonstrated that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (that their lives were decided by events outside of their control) were at a significantly greater risk of developing depression, this suggests that, even if we do not have free will, the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.

Answer 34

neuroscientists have found activity in motor areas of the brain before the person had a conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger, in other words the decision to move their finger (a conscious state) was simply a read out of a pre-determined action, follow up studies have confirmed activity in the pre-frontal cortex up to 10 seconds before a person was awake of their decision to act.

Answer 35

determinism is consistent with the aims of science, the notion that human behaviour is orderly places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences, in addition, the value of such research has led to the development of treatments, interventions and behavioural therapies e.g. drug treatments for schizophrenics. the treatment of mental disorders like schizophrenia where sufferers experience a total loss of control over determined thoughts and behaviour casts doubt on the concept of free will, no one would choose to have schizophrenia so at least in terms of mental illness, behaviour would appear to be consistent.

Answer 36

it is doubtful that 100% genetic determination will ever be found for any behaviour, for example, studies that investigate identical twins find about 80% similarity on intelligence and 40% for depression so if one twin has a high IQ, then there is an 80% chance the other twin will be the same, therefore genes do not entirely explain behaviour. with regards to hard determinism, the idea that an individual has no choice in their own actions is not consistent with the legal system, in a court of law offenders are held morally accountable for their actions. determinism is unfalsifiable, it is based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist, even though they may not yet have been found, as a basic principle, this is impossible to prove wrong and this suggests that the deterministic approach may not be as scientific as it first appears.

Answer 37

the idea that human behaviour is an indivisible systems and can only be understood by analysing it as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts e.g. the humanistic approach.

Answer 38

the belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constitute parts and it is based on the scientific assumption that behaviour should be explained in the most simplest terms e.g. the biological / behaviourist / SLT / psychodynamic approach.

Answer 39

there are different ways of viewing the same idea: the cultural and social level , psychological level and biological level (from least reductionist to most reductionist).

Answer 40

biological and environmental.

Answer 41

attempts to explain behaviour in terms of genetic influences e.g. hormones, genes etc.

Answer 42

attempts to explain behaviour is terms of stimulus-response links that have been learnt through experience.

Answer 43

holism emphasises the interconnectedness and interdependence of different aspects of behaviour, whereas reductionism breaks down behaviour into simpler components. holism considers the context and complexity of human behaviour, while reductionism seeks to isolate and study individual components in isolation. holism recognises the importance of considering various factors, while reductionism focuses on isolating and studying specific elements.

Answer 44

understanding the role of culture, environment, and context in shaping behaviour and mental processes, it also involves examining the interaction between different psychological processes, such as cognition, emotion, and motivation, to understand human behaviour as a whole. holism also considers the influence of social and environmental factors on individual behaviour, such as studying the impact of family dynamics on cognitive development.

Answer 45

studying isolated components of behaviour, such as studying the specific neural mechanisms underlying memory or investigating the role of a single neurotransmitter in a particular mental process. reductionism can also involve using animal models to study isolated behaviours or studying specific cognitive processes in isolation, such as perception or attention.

Answer 46

holistic approaches may involve conducting qualitative research, such as ethnographic studies or case studies, to understand the complexity of human behaviour in real-world settings. reductionist approaches may involve conducting experiments or using neuroimaging techniques to isolate and study specific components of behaviour or mental processes. researchers may also use a combination of holism and reductionism, depending on the research question and the goals of the study.

Answer 47

there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge in a group context and can’t be understood through an individual group member e.g. the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the stanford prison experiment (zimbardo) could not be understood through individual participants, the interaction between people in the group was more informative so this shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour rather than reductionist approaches.

Answer 48

doesn’t really involve scientific testing so research can become vague and speculative e.g humanistic psychology tends to be criticised for its lack of empirical evidence and by considering a range of different factors makes it hard to see which was most influential and some factors may be overlooked despite their significant which suggests that the holistic approach cannot accurately explain certain behaviours.

Answer 49

it takes a scientific approach when conducting research by controlling variables and operationalising and standardising them which increases the objectivity and reliability, this also increases the credibility of psychology.

Answer 50

reductionist approaches might be criticised as they may oversimplify complex concepts leading to a loss of validity.

Answer 51

it is about psychological investigation and discusses whether it should produce generalities to compare people on nomothetic grounds or look at what makes individuals unique, idiographic grounds.

Answer 52

it focuses on the nature of the individual and people are studied as unique entities, there is no attempt to generalise findings to larger groups and they favour qualitative research methods e.g. case studies, unstructured interviews.

Answer 53

humanistic approach - focuses on conscious experiences of the individual ('anti-scientific'). psychodynamic approach - use of case study method, but claimed to establish universal laws. case studies - small sample, studied in depth. unstructured interviews - interviewed in depth. unstructured observations - observed in depth. qualitative data - produces detailed information about an individual.

Answer 54

produces general laws of human behaviour and it helps people to be compared, classified and measured, it favours quantitative research methods e.g. experiments.

Answer 55

behaviourist approach - general principles of behaviour are created (due to external factors), controlled experiments. biological approach - biological factors for things like disorders are used to treat all patients. cognitive approach - focuses on establishing theories on information processing that apply to all people. experiments - uses data from large sample to generalise findings to society and establish theories about human behaviour. quantitative data - produces data that can be compared between individuals / groups. social psychology - conclusions drawn about behaviour e.g. situational factors and obedience / conformity.

Answer 56

it takes a nomothetic approach, this is because his study lead to the application of his research to society and STM capacity as a whole, the STM being classified as limited suggests that his study helps people to be compared and measured.

Answer 57

it takes an idiographic approach due to the small sample (1 person) and the focus on the nature of his individual differences (his memory), he has been studied in depth which produces qualitative data that cannot be generalised to the wider society.

Answer 58

they both have scientific credibility, the processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences e.g. establishing objectivity through standardisation and researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods e.g. triangulation is used as a way of increasing validity, also modern and qualitative researchers make use of reflexivity to prevent their own biases and preconceptions, this suggests that both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology's status as a science.

Answer 59

using in-depth qualitative methods of investigation provides a detailed description of an individual which may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or by challenging such laws e.g. a single case may generate hypotheses for further studies such as patient HM as these kind of cases can reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to understanding, this suggests that the idiographic approach may still help form 'scientific' laws of behaviour, however, their work is very narrow and restricted so meaningful generalisations cannot be made without more examples as comparisons cannot be made, methods with the idiographic approach tend to be the least scientific as conclusions rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher (open to bias), therefore difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour.

Answer 60

it is believed that this approach has a loss of understanding of the individual due to being preoccupied with general laws, e.g. knowing that there is a 1% risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what is life like for someone with the disorder, so understanding the subjective experience, of schizophrenia for example, is useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options, this means that the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to 'experience'.

Answer 61

it refers to the effect or consequence of psychological research and theory on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just on the participants taking part in the research - they don't have as much power as the media etc.

Answer 62

'studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.' (sieber and stanley, 1988).

Answer 63

- a study on depression may have consequences in terms of individual participants, the wider social group they represent and for social policy e.g. a participant may reveal personal information that is later accessed by an employer or the findings may suggest that people with depression never fully recover and are at risk as an employee. - in terms of social policy, the findings could inform preferred treatment options recommended by the NHS; consequences for exam policy. - research on LTM in a student population is unlikely to have consequences for individual participants or for the broader social groups the participants represent so there are unlikely to be consequences for social policy.

Answer 64

4 concerns that we should take into account when conduction research.

Answer 65

the research question, the methodology used, the institutional context and interpretation and application of findings.

Answer 66

the researcher must consider their research question carefully - asking socially sensitive questions may be damaging to members of a particular groups.

Answer 67

the researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant's and their right to confidentiality and anonymity.

Answer 68

the researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research, if the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings.

Answer 69

the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world - could their data or results be used to inform policy.

Answer 70

the government looks to research when developing important social policies e.g. related to child care, education, mental health etc, for using scientific research, the UK has independent groups (e.g. ONS - office for national statistics) to collect, analyse and disseminate objective data, where such data is used in psychological research, this means that socially sensitive research can help improve society and psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research. socially sensitive research can have benefits for the group who have been studied, e.g. homosexuality at first seen as a personality disorder but removed from the DSM-1 later on by the kinsey report (5000 men interviewed) which illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive. -> (counterpoint): in some studies there should be negative consequences for the groups being studied e.g. the criminal gene has implications for people claiming no responsibility so there is a need for careful consideration of the possible outcomes and consequences of socially sensitive research.

Answer 71

poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which can have an impact on society, for example, in relation to burt's research, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ exam continued to be used, similarly, access to many independent schools is based on a child's performance in an entry exam taken in year 6 which is likely based on the same reasoning - genetic potential, this can cause enduring effects on particular groups of people like discrimination which mean researchers need to plan their research precisely on socially sensitive topics.

Issues and Debates in Psychology Flashcards

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