Research Methods Flashcards

Question

what is a field experiment?

Answer 1

a controlled experiment conducted outside the laboratory, the IV is still manipulated by the researcher but the experiment takes place in a natural environment.

Answer 2

piliavin (1969) got a confederate to collapse in a train when smelling of alcohol or carrying a walking stick and seeing how many people helped in each condition.

Answer 3

- there is higher mundane realism than lab experiments, therefore higher external validity. - often participants won't know that they are being studied, so demand characteristics are less of an issue.

Answer 4

- it is harder to control extraneous variables so harder to know if the IV has affected the DV, lack of internal validity. - if participants are unaware they are being studied, this raises ethical issues (lack of informed consent). - replication is more difficult as the exact natural situation can not be replicated each time.

Answer 5

an experiment where the IV varies due to a naturally occurring event and the researcher takes the opportunity to study it.

Answer 6

williams (1986) looked at the effects in gender attitudes after the introduction of TV to a small town in canada.

Answer 7

- there is high external validity as the IV is naturally occurring. - the effects can be tested of factors that could not be manipulated by the researcher e.g. the effects of the lack of attachment in romanian orphans.

Answer 8

- there is less control over extraneous variables than field experiments. - participants can't be randomly allocated to conditions, introducing the possibility of bias. - naturally occurring IVs may be rare, so studies can't be repeated.

Answer 9

an experiment where the IV cannot be manipulated by the researcher so they use a naturally occurring IV.

Answer 10

gender differences in attitudes towards food.

Answer 11

it can be tested under controlled conditions, increasing the scientific credibility of the research and allows replication.

Answer 12

- participants can't be randomly allocated to conditions, introducing possible confounding variables. - it is difficult to control for extraneous variables so it is difficult to establish cause and effect. - researchers cannot be certain that the IV caused the DV.

Answer 13

it refers to the way in which participants are used in experiments (how they are arranged).

Answer 14

independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.

Answer 15

participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition (each participant only does one condition).

Answer 16

- no issue of order effects. - less time consuming - less chance of demand characteristics

Answer 17

- it is difficult and expensive, different participants need to be recruited for each condition. - participant variables may be an issue, results may be due to a confounding variable rather than manipulation of the IV which can reduce the validity of findings.

Answer 18

random allocation

Answer 19

an attempt to control for participant variables which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other (by distributing participants into each condition through the use of random techniques).

Answer 20

all participants take part in all the conditions of the experiment, (each participant takes part in both conditions).

Answer 21

- no participant variables - participants take part in both conditions so there is more confidence that results were due to the manipulation of the IV, meaning there is higher validity. - it is time efficient and cost effective, the same participants are used twice (at least) so extra participants do not need to be recruited.

Answer 22

- order effects, repeating two tasks could create boredom or fatigue which could deteriorate the participants' behaviour in the second condition or performance may improve due to knowledge of first task, therefore order acts as a confounding variable. - an increased chance of demand characteristics, it is more likely that participants will work out the aim of the study when experiencing all conditions of the experiment.

Answer 23

counterbalancing

Answer 24

an attempt to control for the effects of order, in counterbalancing half the participants experience the conditions in one order (condition A then B) and the other half in the opposite order (condition B then A).

Answer 25

pairs of participants are matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV, then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and then the other to condition B.

Answer 26

- participants only take part in one condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem. - reduced risk of participant variables, due to matching process so findings are more valid.

Answer 27

- difficult and expensive, different participants need to be recruited for each condition. - can be time-consuming due to pre-test process. - difficult to match participants identically, matching is a more complex process.

Answer 28

a group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.

Answer 29

a group of people who take part in a research investigation, the sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population.

Answer 30

the method used to select people from the population.

Answer 31

random, volunteer, opportunity, systematic and stratified

Answer 32

each member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected through chance methods e.g. picking names out of a hat.

Answer 33

there is internal validity, lack of extraneous / confounding variables due to the sample being potentially unbiased.

Answer 34

- difficult and time-consuming, a complete list of the target population may be extremely difficult to obtain. - selected participants may refuse to take part. - it is possible that the sample may end up being unrepresentative rather than representative.

Answer 35

participants put themselves forwards to take part in a study.

Answer 36

it is easy, convenient and less time-consuming due to the participants being more engaged than others so there is less of an effort needed from researchers.

Answer 37

volunteer bias - only a certain type of people will be attracted so representativeness is reduced.

Answer 38

when every nth member of the target population is selected and a sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised in a way.

Answer 39

the method is objective, the researcher has no influence after selection so it is likely to be representative.

Answer 40

it is time-consuming and participants may refuse to take part, resulting in a volunteer sample.

Answer 41

the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population, to carry out a stratified sample the researcher first identifies the different strata that make up the population and then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out.

Answer 42

the sample is representative because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population so the findings are more generalisable.

Answer 43

it is hard to represent differences in people so complete representation of the target population is not possible.

Answer 44

a technique where the participants are available at the time of the study.

Answer 45

it is convenient, much less time consuming and costly than other methods.

Answer 46

- there is a high chance of obtaining an unrepresentative sample. - the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants, could lead to researcher bias.

Answer 47

they arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.

Answer 48

it involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including to withdraw) and what their data will be used for, from the researcher's point of view, asking for informed consent may make the study meaningless because the participants' behaviour will not be 'natural'.

Answer 49

deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation, there can be occasions where deception can be justified if it does not cause the participant distress.

Answer 50

participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be 'normally' and they should be protected from physical and psychological harm.

Answer 51

participants have the right to control information about themselves, if this is invaded the confidentiality should be protected, this right to privacy extends to where the study takes place (institutional / geographical location not named).

Answer 52

it refers to our right to have any personal data protected.

Answer 53

it is a set of ethical guidelines that researchers have a duty to observe when conducting research.

Answer 54

participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.

Answer 55

at the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief (where participants are made aware of the true aims and any extra details), they should also be told what their data will be used for and given the right to withdraw / withhold data, participants may also require counselling, which the researcher should provide, if they experience any embarrassment or stress.

Answer 56

personal details must be protected (maintain anonymity), researchers usually refer to participants by number or initials and during briefing/debriefing participants are reminded that their data will be protected.

Answer 57

a small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted, the aim is to ensure that there are no issues and if necessary the researcher is able to make changes/modification.

Answer 58

participants are not aware of the aims/conditions until the end of the study to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics.

Answer 59

neither participants nor individual conducting research know the aim/condition of the study.

Answer 60

involve observing actual behaviours which are subsequently recorded.

Answer 61

naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant and non-participant.

Answer 62

it is conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur e.g. in a classroom.

Answer 63

it is high in external validity as there are more natural behaviours and findings can be generalised to real life.

Answer 64

it can be difficult to replicate so cannot check reliability, as researcher is not in control of variables.

Answer 65

it often takes place in a laboratory setting where researchers control some variables e.g. bandura's study.

Answer 66

replication is much easier as confounding/extraneous variables are less of a factor, reliability can be checked.

Answer 67

there is low ecological validity due to the researcher recording behaviours in artificial environments.

Answer 68

participants are unaware that they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed in secret (covertly).

Answer 69

investigator effects are unlikely meaning that participants' behaviour will be genuine, leading to an increase in internal validity.

Answer 70

it is less ethical as participants are not aware that they are taking part and cannot give consent.

Answer 71

when participants know that their behaviour is being observed and have given their informed consent beforehand.

Answer 72

it is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent.

Answer 73

behaviour can be distorted through investigator effects in which the participants change their behaviour through social desirability bias.

Answer 74

when the observer becomes part of the group they are studying.

Answer 75

the researcher can gain a greater insight into the experiences of those being observed (gives rich qualitative data) which increases external validity and high ecological validity (true to real life).

Answer 76

- the researcher may lose objectivity as they become part of the study and can be unethical due to ethical issues (deception). - it can be dangerous and time-consuming and collecting data can be difficult.

Answer 77

the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner.

Answer 78

the researcher is more likely to remain objective so there is less danger of them adopting characteristics of the 'lifestyle' they are observing, higher in validity (investigator effects less likely).

Answer 79

the researcher may lack the extra insight gained from being a participant themselves, as they are removed/far from the environment they are studying.

Answer 80

an observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour.

Answer 81

- data is much easier to analyse to spot trends and make conclusions. - data is more likely to be numerical, therefore quantitative, so more straightforward.

Answer 82

data is in less detail as only certain things have been recorded.

Answer 83

observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in as much detail as possible.

Answer 84

qualitative data is produced so more detail.

Answer 85

- qualitative data is much more difficult to record and analyse. - there is more risk of observer bias (only recording things that fit with the observer's preconceived ideas) and only may record 'appealing' behaviours.

Answer 86

- which type of observation? - unstructured or structured? - behavioural categories (structured)? - which sampling method to use? (time/event)

Answer 87

when designing a structured observation, psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined - key behaviours or collections of behaviours, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record.

Answer 88

makes data collection more structured and objective and to be useful, categories should be unambiguous and clear (categories should also be exclusive and not overlap).

Answer 89

it can be difficult to ensure that the categories do not overlap because some behaviours may be too similar to be able to tell the difference e.g. 'grinning' and 'smiling'.

Answer 90

time sampling and event sampling.

Answer 91

a researcher records behaviours within prescribed intervals e.g. every 5 minutes.

Answer 92

effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made.

Answer 93

behaviour recorded may be less representative of the whole observation.

Answer 94

the researcher records every time a behaviour (event) occurs e.g. counting and recording every time aggressive behaviour is seen.

Answer 95

useful when the target behaviour or event happens infrequently.

Answer 96

other important behaviours may be missed.

Answer 97

- observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories to be used. - they then observe the same behaviour at the same time. - observers should compare the data they have recorded and discuss any differences in interpretations. - finally observers should analyse the data from the study, inter-observer reliability is caused by correlating each pair or observations made and an overall figure is produced.

Answer 98

any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.

Answer 99

questionnaires and interviews.

Answer 100

a set of written questions (or 'items') used to assess a person's thoughts and/or experiences - may be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV.

Answer 101

it is a question that does not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way, tends to produce qualitative data.

Answer 102

it is a question that offers a fixed number of responses, can produce both quantitative or qualitative data depending and qualitative data can turn into quantitative data e.g. the number of yes/no responses.

Answer 103

- cost-effective. - can gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be distributed to large numbers of people. - can be completed without the researcher being present which reduces effort and time. - data produced is usually straightforward to analyse and comparisons can be made.

Answer 104

- the responses given may not always be truthful, respondents may present themselves in a positive light which influences their answers (a form of demand characteristics - social desirability bias). - may often produce a response bias, where respondents tend to reply in a similar way throughout e.g. always ticking 'yes', which may be because they complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read questions properly.

Answer 105

a 'live' encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts and/or experiences.

Answer 106

made up of pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order.

Answer 107

they are straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format, the format also reduces differences between interviewers.

Answer 108

it is not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain their questions as this will limit the richness of the data collected as well as limit unexpected information.

Answer 109

there are no set questions, there is a general aim that a central topic will be discussed and interaction tends to be free-flowing - the interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers.

Answer 110

there is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers.

Answer 111

there is more flexibility, the interviewer is more likely to gain insight into the thoughts/experiences of the interviewee, including eliciting unexpected information. - (counterpoint): however this may lead to increased risk of interviewer bias.

Answer 112

- analysis of data is not straightforward, irrelevant information and drawing firm conclusions may be difficult. - there is a risk that interviewees may lie for reasons of social desirability.

Answer 113

a method of analysis which allows a researcher to investigate the relationship between two variables, called co-variables.

Answer 114

scatter graphs

Answer 115

positive, negative and zero/no.

Answer 116

as one co-variable increases so does the other.

Answer 117

as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.

Answer 118

when there is no relationship between the co-variables.

Answer 119

a number between +1 and -1 that tells how closely the co-variables in a correlation are related, the nearer to 1, the stronger the correlation.

Answer 120

correlations show a relationship between variables while an experiment shows cause and effect.

Answer 121

- useful tool for research, assessing strength and direction of a relationship can provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how 2 variables are related, which may suggest ideas for future research. - often used as a starting point for research to assess possible patterns between variables. - quick and cheap to carry out, no need for a controlled environment and manipulation of variables, data collected by others can be used so less time-consuming.

Answer 122

- demonstrating a cause-effect link is not possible and researchers don't know if co-variables can cause the other to change and why (establishing direction of effect is an issue). - another untested variable may be causing the relationships between the 2 co-variables - an intervening variable (third variable problem). - findings of correlational studies are often reported as facts, leading to misinterpretations which could have consequences.

Answer 123

primary, secondary, quantitative and qualitative.

Answer 124

original data or first hand data that has been collected specifically for the research being carried out. - data which is gathered by conducting an experiment, questionnaire, interview or observartion.

Answer 125

it targets relevant information and it is authentic data obtained.

Answer 126

it requires time and effort and possibly money (resources)

Answer 127

data that has already been collected by somebody else and so pre-dates the current research project. - data may be located on websites, in articles etc.

Answer 128

may be inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort.

Answer 129

data may be outdated or not meet study's standards so may challenge validity of any conclusions.

Answer 130

numerical data, open to being analysed statistically and can be easily converted into graphs, charts etc.

Answer 131

- simple to analyse so comparisons are easily drawn. - data is more objective and less open to bias.

Answer 132

much narrower in meaning and less detail than qualitative so lacks validity.

Answer 133

written data, often acquired from interviews or unstructured observations.

Answer 134

much more detail offered, so tends to have greater external validity.

Answer 135

- often difficult to analyse. - conclusions often rely on subjective interpretations and may be subject to bias.

Answer 136

'research about research' - refers to the process of combining results from numerous studies on a certain topic to provide an overview.

Answer 137

creates large, varied sample so generalisable and there is an increase in validity.

Answer 138

it is prone to bias as it only represents the same data.

Answer 139

the general term for any measure of the average value in a data set.

Answer 140

the average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values.

Answer 141

- most sensitive as it includes all of the scores/values in the data set. - more representative of the data as a whole.

Answer 142

can be easily distorted by extreme values.

Answer 143

the most frequently occurring value in a set of data (bimodal/no mode if all scores are different).

Answer 144

- easy to calculate. - sometimes the only measure that can be used on certain data e.g. categories.

Answer 145

- lacks accuracy. - not representative of the data overall.

Answer 146

the middle value in a data set when it is arranged from lowest to highest.

Answer 147

- extreme values do not affect it. - easy to calculate.

Answer 148

less sensitive as not all scores/values are included in the final calculation.

Answer 149

the general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.

Answer 150

a simple calculation of the spread of scores, which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1.

Answer 151

easy to calculate.

Answer 152

only takes account of 2 most extreme values which may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole.

Answer 153

a measure of spread in a set of scores, it is a single value which tells us how far scores deviate from the mean, the larger the SD scores, the greater the spread.

Answer 154

a much more precise measures of dispersion as it includes all values within the final calculation.

Answer 155

all values included can be distorted by a single extreme value.

Answer 156

graphs, tables, scattergrams, bar charts and histograms.

Answer 157

a type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.

Answer 158

data is divided into categories (discrete data).

Answer 159

a type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.

Answer 160

a type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars represents frequency, the x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous.

Answer 161

a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern, the mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak (so all have the same midpoint of the curve).

Answer 162

a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.

Answer 163

a type of frequency distribution where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph and the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak. - the mode is at the highest point, then the median and the mean is towards the 'tail' - pulled right.

Answer 164

a type of frequency distribution where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the right of the graph and the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak. - the mode is at the highest point, then the median and the mean is towards the 'tail' - pulled left.

Answer 165

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality.

Answer 166

- to allocate research funding. - to validate the quality and relevance of research. - to suggest amendments or improvements.

Answer 167

- validity and accuracy of research is established. - anonymity is likely to produce a more honest appraisal.

Answer 168

- anonymity may be used as a way of criticising rival researchers. - researchers prefer to publish positive results which means research that does not mean the criteria is ignored or disregarded, so this creates a false impression of the current state of psychology. - reviewers tend to be critical of research that contradicts their own view and more favourable to one that matches it - maintaining their status quo.

Answer 169

the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.

Answer 170

- a psychologically healthy and well-educated population can be more productive, producing more and higher quality goods and services. - the consumption of goods and services depends on a population able an willing to buy those goods and services, a psychological understanding and manipulation of desire (e.g. effective and advertising) increase demand. - generation of tax revenue that pays for public services depends on taxing income, which depends on people employed in producing and consuming goods and being convinced to pay their taxes.

Answer 171

maternal deprivation: research by harlow (deprivation in monkeys), bowlby (critical period), ainsworth (attachment style) and rutter (romanian orphans) demonstarte intellectual, emotional and physical development can be negatively affected by deprivation early in a child's life.

Answer 172

midwives use the psychological knowledge gained about the developmental needs of young children when giving informed advice to expectant mothers, hospitals have improved their policies around family visiting hours for young children and physical contact between mothers and children in the first hours of life, adoption agencies prioritise quick placement of infants in loving families.

Answer 173

they improve the development of children which improves the economy as these adults are likely to be more productive, better adjusted to the demands of adult life and less likely to need costly mental health support as adults.

Answer 174

conditioning: behavioural theories of classical (pavlov) and operant (skinner) conditioning explain how to shape and even change human behaviour.

Answer 175

social media and computer game companies can manipulate their uses to engage with their products more by providing virtual rewards such as 'likes', 'followers' and 'levels', these act as social rewards and result in compulsive use.

Answer 176

they improve the economy as companies can display more adverts, making more money.

Answer 177

neurotransmitters: the action and imbalance of neurotransmitters are linked to mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, OCD, schizophrenia etc. and drug therapies can act on neurotransmitters, altering how they function in the brain and reducing symptoms.

Answer 178

the development of cheap and effective drug treatments has allowed people to reduce symptoms and return to everyday life, including work.

Answer 179

they improve the economy by reducing the cost to the NHS, improving workers' productivity at work and increasing the number of workers paying taxes.

Answer 180

detailed and in-depth investigations of an individual, small group of people, institution or event e.g. people with brain damage, institutional racism, covid-19 pandemic etc. - often involves 'unusual' or rare, one-off events but can also be of typical events e.g. childhood experiences across generations.

Answer 181

usually produce qualitative data (e.g. interviews, questionnaires, observations) but can also produce quantitative data (e.g. psychometric testing, brain scans etc.), usually longitudinal.

Answer 182

- they create opportunities to gather rich data (i.e. an accurate and exhaustive measure of what the study is hoping to measure), high in validity. - studying abnormal psychology can give insight into how something works when it is functioning correctly, such as brain damage and memory (e.g. patient KF). - detail collected on a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with current theories e.g. localisation of function.

Answer 183

- there is little control over a number of variables involved in a case study, so it is difficult to confidently establish any causal relationships between variables. - case studies are unusual by nature, so replication is unlikely. - often use small sample sizes which means the findings cannot be generalised to the wider population. - case study's researcher may become so involved with the study that they exhibit bias in their interpretation and presentation of the data, which lowers the validity.

Answer 184

a type of observational research while involves studying people indirectly via the communications they produce (e.g. spoken interaction, written communication, media), the communication is summarised and described in a systematic way to draw conclusions about behaviour.

Answer 185

it is the initial stage of content analysis in which it involves categorising information into meaningful units i.e. counting up the number of times a particular word, phrase or event appears in a data set - quantitative data.

Answer 186

data collected -> examining data -> identifying coding units -> analysed by applying coding units -> tally made of amount of times coding unit appears.

Answer 187

a form of content analysis that involves identifying themes in the data set (implicit or explicit ideas that are recurrent), these are more descriptive e.g. analysis the way people with mental health issues are portrayed in newspapers, producing themes such as 'stereotype', 'poor treatment' etc. - qualitative data.

Answer 188

- it is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers. - easy technique to use and not too time consuming. - allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitative data as a result of the procedure. - deals with ethical issues as material is usually widely available and accessible.

Answer 189

- causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data. - as it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising.

Answer 190

a measure of consistency (stays the same). - psychological investigations are said to be reliable if the results are similar each time they are carried out using the same design, procedures and measurements.

Answer 191

internal reliability and external reliability.

Answer 192

it refers to the consistency of a measure within itself e.g. questions in an interview measure the same thing.

Answer 193

it assesses the consistency of a measure from one use to another e.g. reusing asch's line study to get the same results.

Answer 194

- test-retest - inter-rater reliability (or inter-interviewer / inter-observer - split-half method

Answer 195

the same test is taken on different occasions and findings are correlated from each test, it shows to what extent the test produces the same/similar answers i.e. if it is consistent or reliable. - so if the correlation turns out to be significant (and positive) then the reliability is good. - there also must be significant time between test and retest to ensure that the participant/respondent cannot recall their answers but not so long that their attitudes, opinions or abilities may have changed.

Answer 196

when different observers use the same measure and their findings are correlated by comparing their data, usually used in a pilot study or at the end of an actual study to make sure behavioural categories are consistently applied.

Answer 197

data is collected and split randomly in half and compared, to see if results taken from each part of the measure are similar.

Answer 198

produces low test-retest reliability and may require some of the items to be 'deselected' or rewritten.

Answer 199

by replacing some of the open questions with closed questions as the open questions can lead to misinterpretation, the fixed-choice alternatives may be less ambiguous.

Answer 200

- not using the same interviewer each time. - asking questions that are too leading. - unstructured interviews are less likely to be reliable.

Answer 201

using structured interviews rather than unstructured due to interviewer's behaviour being more controlled by the fixed questions, so more likely to be reliable.

Answer 202

unstandardised procedures can cause reliability issues as in order to compare between participants, the procedures must be consistent every time.

Answer 203

reliability can be improved by controlling the conditions of the experiment as far as possible e.g. using standardised instructions, full details of the method being published etc.

Answer 204

categories should not overlap with each other and if they are not operationalised well, different observers have to make their own judgements of what to record where they may end up with differing and inconsistent records.

Answer 205

categories need to be fully operationalised and all possible behaviours should be covered to make sure the categories are as objective as possible and less open to individual interpretation, making it more reliable.

Answer 206

whether a measure actually measures what it claims to be measuring and the extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the research setting in which they were found.

Answer 207

face validity, internal validity and external validity.

Answer 208

a measure of wether a tool looks like (subjectively) it measures what it's supposed to e.g. is an IQ test measuring IQ and not memory.

Answer 209

a measure of whether results obtained are solely affected by changes in the IV in a cause-and-effect relationship - can be assessed based on whether extraneous variables that could also affect results are successfully controlled or eliminated; the greater the control, the better the validity.

Answer 210

a measure of whether data can be generalised to other situations outside of the research environment they were originally gathered in.

Answer 211

concurrent validity

Answer 212

the extent to which a measure is in agreement with a pre-existing measure that has already been validated, gauged by correlating measures against each other e.g. correlating results on a new depression inventory with beck's depression inventory.

Answer 213

ecological validity and temporal validity.

Answer 214

how far the findings of a study can be generalised to the real world and other settings e.g. bahrick's study of LTM.

Answer 215

whether research findings successfully apply across time (certain variables in the past may no longer be relevant now or in the future) e.g. asch's line study.

Answer 216

participants may answer dishonestly, especially if their results will be 'open to the public'.

Answer 217

keeping results anonymous will increase the chances of the participant answering truthfully and having a lie scale built in will also help improve validity.

Answer 218

participant reactivity (when behaviours and reactions are impacted by participants' knowledge that they are part of a study) and investigator effects (occur when a researcher unintentionally or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting), these are extraneous variables.

Answer 219

using a control group to compare the results of the experimental group to can improve validity, if the experimental groups results are different to the control group then the IV is likely to have changed the DV and using single and double-blind procedures can reduce the chance of extraneous variables having an impact on an experiment.

Answer 220

behavioural categories that are too broad, overlapping or ambiguous may have a negative impact on the validity of the data collected.

Answer 221

covert observations are likely to be high in validity, as the participant is unaware they are being observed, their behaviour is more likely to be natural and having clear and unambiguous behavioural categories will also improve validity.

Answer 222

the impact that researcher bias has on the answers given and leading questions from the interviewer.

Answer 223

depth and detail may increase validity but further enhanced through triangulation.

Answer 224

- design: what is the design of the research? - repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs. - difference: is a difference being investigated or a correlation/association? - data: is the data nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio? - looking at the DV.

Answer 225

this refers to the way in which data are measured, the different levels indicate the strength and gives different types of information about the data collected.

Answer 226

nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Answer 227

the data is represented in the form of categories (sometimes referred to as categorical data), the frequency count of a particular variable is recorded at this level of measurement, these variables are discrete (don't overlap) and the categories have no natural order - discrete.

Answer 228

the data is in a natural order, the numbers represent positions within a group - does not have equal intervals between each unit and also lacks precision due to being based on a subjective opinion.

Answer 229

based on numerical/interval scales that are precise due to having the same distance (equal intervals) between each adjacent point in a standardised scale - continuous data and it is the most precise and sophisticated form of data.

Answer 230

it is the same as interval level data but with an absolute zero point (but is treated as interval data usually) e.g. time, temperature etc.

Answer 231

design, difference and data.

Answer 232

repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs?

Answer 233

investigating a difference or a correlation/association.

Answer 234

nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio - looking at the DV.

Answer 235

used to determine whether the difference found is significant or not, different statistical tests are used for different types of data and studies.

Answer 236

the null hypothesis suggests no causal relationship exists between the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV). the alternative hypothesis suggests a causal relationship.

Answer 237

evidence is collected and the researcher varies levels of the IV and measures the resulting change in the DV, accepting or rejecting either hypothesis depends on whether or not the results of the test match the null or alternative hypothesis.

Answer 238

psychologists accept a 5% chance that their results are due to chance variation, p=<0.05 means that there is less than a 5% probability the results gained are due to chance.

Answer 239

occasionally used, this level of significance is usually required of studies attempting to support a controversial theory or if the psychologist is conducting a replication, using this level reduces the probability of accepting the alternate hypothesis in error to less than 1 in 100.

Answer 240

due to the random nature of data collection, there is no level or probability we can use that completely removes the possibility of accepting the alternative hypothesis in error.

Answer 241

when researchers accept the alternative hypothesis (reject null) in error, the data collected has passed the level of significance, but really the findings were due to chance variation - using p=<0.05 means this will happen in around 1 in 20 studies.

Answer 242

when researchers reject the alternative hypothesis (accept null) in error, the data has not passed the level of significance, but really the participants not acting as expected is due to chance variation hiding the causal relationship between IV and DV.

Answer 243

a researcher can decide to use a p=<0.01 level of significance, however this then increases the likelihood of a type II error.

Answer 244

using p=<0.05 level of significance, but increases likelihood of a type I error.

Answer 245

Carrots Should Come Mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes - c = chi-squared - s = sign test - c = chi-squared - m = mann-whitney - w = wilcoxon - s = spearman's rho - u = unrelated t-test - r = related t-test - p = pearson's r

Answer 246

used to analyse the difference in scores between related items using nominal data.

Answer 247

when looking at differences, using a repeated measures design and having nominal data (categories).

Answer 248

used to determine whether two samples are significantly different.

Answer 249

when looking at differences, using an independent groups design (unrelated design) and having ordinal data (ordered).

Answer 250

step 1: subtract each participant's score in condition B from A, clearly note the sign of each result (+ or -). step 2: work out the number of participants (N), exclude any participants with the same score in both conditions. step 3: work out S (the least frequent sign). step 4: use the critical values table to find the critical value - read across from N calculated and down from the level of significance required. step 5: compare the critical value to S, if S is equal to or less than the critical value then the results are significant.

Answer 251

step 1: rank the data for both groups, the lowest number being a rank of 1. step 2: find the total rank for each group individually. step 3: for the result to be significant, the calculated value must be equal to or less than the critical value - so the null hypothesis can be rejected and the alternative hypothesis can be accepted.

Answer 252

used to determine whether two samples are significantly different.

Answer 253

when looking at difference, using a repeated measures design (repeated design) and having ordinal data (ordered).

Answer 254

step 1: calculate the difference between two scores. step 2: rank the differences (smallest = rank 1 - remove scores with no difference). step 3: add up the ranks of + difference. step 4: add up the ranks of - difference. step 5: work out the value of T - smallest total rank. step 6: for the result to be significant, the calculated value of T is less than or equal to the critical value of T so the null hypothesis would be rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

Answer 255

unrelated t-test, related t-test and pearson's r. - more robust and powerful tests and are more likely to detect a significant difference than non-parametric tests.

Answer 256

- the data is interval. - the data is normally distributed.

Answer 257

used to determine whether 2 sets of data are significantly different.

Answer 258

when looking at differences, using an independent groups design and having interval level data.

Answer 259

Na + Nb - 2

Research Methods Flashcards

Psychology Paper 2 (288 cards)