LAB 2 Flashcards
(235 cards)
1
Q
Pupil also called
A
Apple of the eye
2
Q
What type of reflex is blinking?
A
Somatic skeletal reflex
Hardest to override
The cornea is over the eye is the most sensitive area of the body
3
Q
Corner of the eye, the little sphincter muscle does what
A
Sucts fluid across to the corner of the eye
4
Q
Anterior cavity contains
A
Aqueous humor
Like water
5
Q
The posterior cavity of the eye contains
A
Vitreous body
like jello
Keeps the retina in place
6
Q
Macula lutea
A
Sharpest vision
7
Q
Center of macula lutea
A
Fovea Centralis (Center of the retina, only contains cones)
8
Q
Optic Disc
A
Blind spot - where optic nerve leaves retina, no photoreceptors present
9
Q
Lens
A
Made of protein
Changes by ciliary muscle
10
Q
Vascular tunic
A
Iris ciliary body and choroid
11
Q
Fibrous tunic
A
Cornea and sclera
11
Q
Sclera
A
White of the eye
12
Q
Retina
A
Pigmented epithelial layer and neural layer (Photoreceptors), bipolar cells, ganglion cells (Axons form optic nerve)
13
Q
Why are photoreceptors backwards?
A
Tips of photoreceptors burn out leaving garbage tissue, but macrophages can work behind the line of sight to clean up the dead tissue
14
Q
Black pigment layer in people
A
Absorbs light so photoreceptors are only stimulated once
15
Q
Iridescent layer in animal
A
Reflect photons of light that are absorbed, night vision but less clarity
16
Q
Where do all senses go before consicous awareness?
A
Thalamus
17
Q
Know the layers of the retina
A
Sclera, choroid, pigmented lauey, phtoreceptors …
18
Q
Cones
A
Cones have higher visual acuity
Single bipolar cell and axon that connect to visual cortex
Require larger stimulus
19
Q
Rods
A
Many rods are connected to single bipolar cell which travels to visual cortex
Less visual acuity
Rods use summation to reach the threshold
20
Q
Vit A deficiency and afterimage
A
Rhodopsin falls apart when overstimulated, before it regenerates there is a negative afterimage (Lack of visual stimulus)
21
Q
What shape is the lens for images farther away?
A
Flatter
22
Q
Light is refracted by what
A
Cornea, lens, vitreous body
Lens is the only thing that can change
23
Q
Why is looking at things up close harder
A
Ciliary Muscles are constantly contracted
24
Presbyopia
Cannot focus objects close to eye properly
Cannot round lens well anymore
25
Snellen eye chart
First number : Distance (Feet) Where you stand
Second number: Distance (Feet) Average person can see at
26
Why are more boys colourblind?
A recessive gene on the x chromosome
27
External Ear
Auricle, external auditory canal and tympanic membrane
28
The middle ear
Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), oval window, round window, and auditory tube
29
Internal ear
Vestibule, semicircular, canals and the cochlea
30
Function of earwax
Traps debris, regulates pH
31
Why is the low pH of ears good
Keeps bugs from making a home
32
Skin in the ear is replaced ...
Sideways therefore skin cells are replaced sideways and debris moves out of your ear
33
Three smallest bones in body
Malleus, incus and stapes
34
How does thr tensor tympani muscle protect ear
Contracts and dampens the sound
35
Purpose of the middle ear
Allows for dampening of the sound
36
WHere is the equilibrim recepotrs of the ear
vestibule
37
Why rubbery end of oval window
Prevents reverberation and allows for distinct hearing
38
How do sound waves become nerve impulses
39
How many different semi circular canals
3
40
Where does the olfactory tract go
NOt to the thalamus - straight to the cortex
41
Hygiene in history
Could have prevented plagues
42
Fatality rate of having a baby in the possible
20% chance of death
43
The death rate of birthing after handwashing implemented
2%
44
Lining of the small intestine
Thousands of villi
45
Main function of digestive system
Nourishment for food
46
2 process of DS
Digestion and absorbtion
47
Digestion involves two things
MEchanical digestion and chemical digestion (Breakdown of molecular bonds)
48
Parts involved in DS
Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
49
Accessory parts that contribute from a distance to digestion
Liver pancreas salivary glands
50
4 layers of digestive tract (Vary in different parts epending on fucniton)
Mucosa: Epithelial tissue (Always present)
Submucosa: connective tissue (containing lots of glands to secrete enzymes for digestion and lubrication)
Muscularis: Longitudinal and circular layer smooth muscle layer
Serosa: Very thin layer that surround contours of digestive tract (Visceral layer of serous membrane)
51
Different parieta; peritoneal membranes
Mesentery: Coils the SO together and binds to the abdominal wall
Mesecolon: Binds I intestine to the posterior abdomen wall
Greater omentum: Fatty apron like fold hanging over intestine; adipose tissue and many lymph nodes
Lesser omentum: Connects stomach to liver
Falcifrom ligament: Connects the liver to the anterior abdominal wall
52
Digestion in the mouth
Salivary glands (exocrine glands which means they have ducts)
53
3 pairs of sa;ivary glands
Parotid, sublingual, and submandibular glands
54
Salivary gfland funciton
Moistens mouth and food
Contains enzymes such as :
amylase - breakdown of starch to sugar, pH of 7
Lingual lipase - activated at a low pH: in the stomach
55
The little flap that closes off the trachea
Epiglottis
56
4 layers of the esophagus
Mucosa: Stratified squamous epithelium
Submucosa (Very few glands)
Muscularais - 2 layers: Skeletal and smooth muscle
Adventitia - serosa: aelor CT and fibrous CT (
57
Peristalsis
Lower esoThe movement of smooth muscle
58
4 Areas of the stomach
Cardia: THe receivieing area
The fundus: The holding area
The body where all the action occurs
Pylorus: where food leaves the stomach
59
Rugae
Muscular folds of the stomach that allows the stomach to stretch
60
Extra layer in additino to 3 layers of smooth muscle in the stomach
Oblique layer: Mechanical digestion in the stomach
61
Pyrloric sphincter
Allowing chime to enter from the stomach into the small intestine
62
Goblet cells
Produce mucous that lubricate and in the stomach they release pepsinogen
63
Stomach pH level and reasons
Stomach produces HCL: pH 2-3
Acid kills most bacteria
Converts pepsinogen into pepsin which denatures proteins (unravels) does not chemically digest but makes it EASIER to digest
64
Purpose of mucous in the stomach
Protects the stomach from its own acid
65
Why does ther stomach release pepisnongen (Inactive pepsin)
Bc it would digest the stomach cells itself - the mucous layer protects against
66
Stomach ulcer
The wound in epithelial lining
67
How does stress contribute to stomach ulcers?
Reduces mucous production
68
What causes stomach ulcers?
H. Pylori, stress, alcohol, coffee
69
Parietal cells
Secrete HCl
70
Chief Cells
71
Columnar epithelial cells
72
3 Regions of the small intestine
Duodenum (10"s)
Jejunum (3')
Ileum (6')
73
Main site for digestion in small intestine
Duodenum
74
Funciton of the smal intestine
Complete digestion of all good tupes and absbtopm pf most nutrients
75
3 modifications of the small intestine
76
Histology of small intestine
Villi (Contains lacteal)
Intestinal glands: Secrete enzymes needed to complete digestion
Mucosa: Columnar epith. cell
Brush border enzymes
Absorptive cells - microbial
Goblet cells - secrete mucus
Enteroendocrine cells - secrete hormones
77
Is there a mucous layer in the small intestine?
No
78
What neutralizes the acid in the duodenum
Pancreas
79
What is the purpose of pressure receptors in pancreas?
As soon as you eat, the pancreas feels the pressure and then it will produce as much bicarbonate juice as the stomach produces HCl and then squirts the sodium bicarbonate into the small intestine (Exocrine portion_
80
How is the pancreas an endocrine gland
Insulin: Cells take up glucose
Glucagon:
81
Type 1 Diabetes
Autoimmune disorder: attacks the pancreas so it can no longer produce insulin
This means that they cannot digest sugar
82
Type 2 Diabetes
Cells have become desensitized to insulin
Caused by an unhealthy diet and not enough exercise (bc exercise stimulates sugar absorption, without exercise the body does not NEED to absorb sugar)
83
Pancreatic islet
The site of alpha and beta cells that produce insulin
84
WHy is pancertic cancer so dangereous
No serosa that surrounds the organ to contain it
85
Liver cells
Hepatocytes
86
What does the liver produce
Bile
87
What does bile do
Demlsifies the fat (Breaks up into smaller droplets) NOT chemical digestion, but mechanical
88
Where does bile flow
Through many ducts into the common bile duct
89
What does gallbladder do
Stores bile for the liver to digest fat
90
Additoinal function of bile
Detoxifies things, border patrol, anything passing from the liver is good for the body to use
Bile gets rid of the toxins and expells them through feces
91
Large intestine parts
Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus
92
What does the large intestine function
More bacteria than cells in the organ (probiatics)
- They eat fiber
Byproducts - methane gas
Forms and solidifies feces
93
Which intestine absorbs more water
Small intestine
94
Most nutrients are absorbed
In the small intestine
95
What do the bacteria in the large intestine give us
Vitamin K: Crucial for blood clotting
96
Why should circumcision not happen immediately?
Bc the baby's vitamin K is low bleeding and healing will not occur as well
There are more clotting agents in the human body on the 8th day than in any other day in one's life
97
Appendix organ
A little safe house for bacteria
to repopulate the large intestine a lot faster if they are all washed out in sickness
98
Why is it important that feces are eliminated
Toxins from liver are stored in it
99
How does peristalsis increase
100
How is fiber "digested"
Drinking water
101
How are BMs promoted?
Exercise, drinking water
102
Why are Laxadives bad?
The large bowl becomes lazy and doesn't stretch on its own
depends on laxatives
103
two sphincters of the anus
External and internal muscle sphicter
104
Large intestine has
Lots of goblet cells
105
What does bile do to fats?
Mechanically break them down into smaller pieces
106
What does chewing do
Promotes digestion, enhances flavour, enhances wellbeing
107
pepsin digestions
protein
108
lipase
digests fats
109
amylase digests
carbohydrates
110
What are enzymes
Proteins
111
What does an increase in temp in the body do to enzyme reactions
Inactivates reactions
That's why high fevers are so dangerous
Enzyme reactions shut down
112
How many sources of lipase
3
Analyse
Intestinal secretions
pancreas
113
Function of SI
Digestion and absorption of most nutrients
114
What cells produce pepsin
chief cells
115
Kidneys located
Lower back, retroperitoneal
116
Only place structures leave the kidney
Hilum
117
Outer protection layer of kidney
Renal capsule
118
Why is fat tissue crucial for kdiney
Adipose capsule Keeps kidneys in place
119
Lower back pain in association with starvation
Depletion of fat tissue around kidneyA
120
Fat layer of kidney
Adipose capsule
121
Two kinds of nephrons
Cortical (Shorter and in cortex)
Juxtamedullary nephrn
122
Parts of nephron
Glomerular capusule
123
Glomerus part of nephron
NO, part of renal carpusle
124
Tubules function
To reabsorb nutrient
125
What is main function of loop of Henley
Water reabsor[tion
126
Brain and kidney
Take most of body energy
127
Why does medulla have high sodium content
So that water automatically osmosizes out of nephron into surrounding medulla tissue and will be reabsorbed passively
128
Glomerulus
The inner part of the renal corpuscel
129
Bowmans capsule
the balloon surrounding glomerulus
130
Endothelial membrane
Loosely fitting allowing for nonspecific filtration
131
Peritubular capilleries and vasa recta are essentially
Same thing but PC in cortex and VR in outer medulla
132
Secretion part of formation
Urea removed from blood and added to urine
133
Aldosterone
A hormone stimulating the reabsorption of Na in the distal convoluted tubule
134
What happens if sodium is reabsorbed
Water follows and moves into the bloodstream (decreasing amount of urine and increasing BP)
135
ADH
Anti-Diuretic Hormone
136
Anti-Diuretic Hormone function
Stimulates absorption of water into blood
137
3 Steps to form urine
Filtrations, reabsorption, and secretion (urea and waste products into the tubule out of bloodstream)
138
Cuboidal cells have what in the convoluted tubules
microvilli
139
Reabsorption in the tubules is what form
Active transport often
Mircorvilli helps because it provides more space for tunnels
140
Rough ER present in cuboidal cells
Produces protein for the protein trapsorters Active transport) Within tubules
141
Collecting duct drains into
capillary duct
142
Why are females more prone to UTIs
Females have shorter urethras (4cm) while males have a 20cm urethra
143
Sideaffects of urinary/bladder infections
Cognitive deficits
144
Transitional epithelium
A couple layers thick, the top cells can change shape (Flat to round)
Allowing the bladder to stretch
145
does diet affect urine
Yes
pH, gravity (Conc of solutes), and
146
Diabetes and glucose in the urine
Glucose blood levels do not lessen with insulin
Too much glucose in the bloodstream for active transporters to reabsorb back into bloodstream once it is filtered out and thus it stays in the urine
147
Which organs are part of endocrine system
Most
148
Main endocrine glands/organs
Thyroid, Pit gland, thymus, heart, stomach, kidney etc.
149
Endocrine
Release of hormone into bloodstream
150
Exocrine
Substance into duct (Only local)
151
Heterocrine
Both exo and endocrine funciton
152
Pit Gland
AKA hypophysis
Anterior: Adeno hypohysis
5 cells that produce 7 hormones
Posterior: neuro hypophysis
- Not cellular, releases only two hormones (does not produce them)
153
5 cells of the anterior pit gland
Somatothrophs - HGH: Growth hormone (specific function in puberty)
Lactotrophs - prolactin
Corticotrophs - andrenocorticotrophs
ACTH
MSH- Skin
Thyrotrophs - TSH
Gonadotrophs - FSH and LH
Know 5 cells and 7
154
Posterior pituitary
Looks more like Nervous system
Releases two hormones produced in the hypothalamus
Acts as storage for
Two cells that make up the post pit
- pituicytes
-Axon terminations of secretory cells (Nerosecretory cell)
Two hormones:
- ADH
- Oxytocin: Bonds mother and baby
- stimulates birth, produces milk in response to breast feeding
155
Hormone responsible for homesickness
Lack of oxytocin
156
Thyroid gland
located inferior to larynx
releases hormonese T3 and T4
- Regulate metabolism
3 and 4
- Regulated by iodine
157
colloid
Building blocks for thyroid hormone
158
Calcitonine
Takes calcium into bones
159
Parathyroid glands
4 pea-shaped glands
Chief cells
- produce Parathyroid hormone
: Takes calcium out of bones and puts it into bloodstream
160
Why must calcium levels be kept
For muscle contraction
161
Adrenal Gland
Located above the kidneys
162
Adrenal cortex
Secretes
1. mineralocoricorids- aldosterone
2. Glucocorticoids - cortisol
3. Androgens - secretes small amount of male sexhormnoes
163
Adrenal medulla
164
2 muscels of the testis
Dartos muscle and the cremaster muscle
165
Function of muscles in testis
To keep sperm at a term 3 degrees colder to mainain fertility
166
Cryptorchidism
Fetal development involving testes to fail to descend bw 7 months and birth
167
Why would laptop on lap increase infertility
Increasing temperature of sperm
168
How many lobules in testis divided into?
200-3000
169
Seminferous tubules
1-3 contained within each lobule of testis
170
Which cells produce testosterone
171
Structure of the sperm
Head containing nucleus and acrosome
Tail:
- Mitochondria
- Middle piece
- Principal piece
- End piece
172
What does acrosome contain
Enzymes to penetratrate the egg
173
Benefit of having the sperm swimming so far
Survival of the fittest
174
Abnormal sperm percentage in infertiility
1/3
175
Seminal vesicles
Squirt solution into ejaculatory duct
(semen)
- Alkaline (protecting against acidity of female reproductive system)
- Fructose (For energy)
- Prostoglandins (antiinflammatory to protct viability)
Contribute 60% of total semen volume
176
Prostrate gland
Size of golfball
Citric acid for ATP production
- 25% of semen volume
177
Prostate gland enlargement
Results in squished prostatic urethra
(longer for voiding)
178
Bulbourethral gland
Secrete alkaline fluid
- Secrete mucus for lubrication
179
Path of sperm
Seminiferous tubules
Straight tubules
Rete testis
Efferent ducts of epidymis
Ductus epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejactulatory duct
Prostatic urethra
Membranous urethra
Penile urethra
180
What is snipped in vasectomy
Vas deferens
181
What hold the female repro structures in place
ligaments
182
Cyclical avg.
28 days
183
Several hormones that are produced throughout female cycle
FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
184
Approx amount of eggs
400,000
185
FSH role
Primordial follicle
Primary follicle
Secondary Follicle
Graaffian follicle
186
Estrogen
Negative feedback to FSH (Strongest follicle survives)
187
Estrogen and Prostoglandin
Supress FSH (No new cycle starting randomly)
Build lining of uterus allowing embryo to implant itself
188
Corpus luteum
A clot around egg
Used to build up uterus in case of filtration
Disapears after cycle if not fertalized
189
3 Layers of uterus
Endometirum, myometrum, permetrium
190
Phases of female cycel
Menstrual phase
(lose lining of uterus)
Preovulatory phase
Ovulation
Postovulatory phase
191
Birth control
Progesteron and estrogen
Suppress levels of FSH produced
- Eggs deteriorate bc they rely on FS
192
IUD
Prevents implantation of embryo
Physical or hormonal
193
Endometriosis
When flow goes out into fallopian tubes and into the pelvic cavity endometrial tissue begins growing outside of uterus and can squish fallopian tubes
194
How can you tell if ovulation occured
Before ovulation it's a low 36
after it's a high 36
195
How many people with STDs are asymptomatic
70-80%
196
Fertilizaton nomrlaly occurs
At begining of FT
197
What are the two stages of the female cycel
ovarian and a uterine cycle.
198
Which layer of the uterus is shed during menstration?
stratum functionalis
199
Should the testis remain at body temp to promote fertility
NO
200
WHich cells guide in the process of spermato gneisis
Seratoli cells
201
Track flow of tears
Lacrimal Gland - Lacrimal duct - lacrimal canaliculi - lacrimal sac - nasolacrimal duct
202
Purpose of aqueos humor
Maintain intra ocular pressure
203
Glaucoma
Increased intraocular pressure from excessive aqueous humor - blindness
204
Two types of bipolar cells
Amacrine and horizontal
205
Layers of retina from deep to superficial
Superficial*
Sclera
Choroid
Pigmented layer
Photoreceptors
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells
Optic nerve axons
DEEP*
206
Rod and cones differences
Rods - many more rods connect to single bipoar cell therefore increasing sensitivity to light but decreasing visual acuity
Cones are the opposite
207
Action of rhodopsin
Coloured photopigment that regenerates opsin in photreceptors after they have been stimualted, a lack in vit A would result in a longer after image
208
Parts of the external, middle, and internal ear
External
Auricle, ext. auditory canal, tympanic membrane
Middle
Ossicles (Malleus, incus, and stapes), oval window, round window, auditory tube
Internal
Vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea
209
How does conduction in the ear occur
Air conduction to bone conduction to water conduction (to nerve conduction)
210
Two parts of inner ear
Cochlea and semicircual canals
211
Cochlea contains
Hearing recepotrs
212
Semicircular canal contains
Balance receptors
213
Pathway of auditory nerve impulse
Vestibulochochlear (VIII) - medulla - midbrain - thalamus - temporal lobe (auditory area) of cerebral cortex
214
Vestibule
Part of inner ear containing utricle and saccule which hold maculae, recepotrs for static equillibrium
215
which part of ear manages dynamic equillibrium
Semicircular canals
216
Earliest symptom of alzheimer's disease
Lack of smell
217
Sclera venus sinus
Draining aqueous humour back into bloodstream
218
Fleshy part of theear frequently pierced?
Lobule
219
Rim of the auricle
helix
220
Study Pg. 382 and 383
Cochlea structure
221
Webber test, rinne testm barany test
Webber: Assesses for bilateral hearing loss
Rinne: Assesses for conduction deafness
Barany: Evaluates function of semicircular canals
222
Cribiform plate
Seperating nasal cavity and brain
223
Interconnected components of membranous labrynth
semicircular ducts
224
interconnected components of bony labyrinth
Semicircular canals
225
Crista
Detect rotational acceleration/decceleration
consit of har cells and supporting cells
226
What contains perilymph
Bony labyrinth
227
What contains endolymph
Within membranous labyrinth
228
How many semicircular canals
3
229
Semicircular ducts
secotions of mebrnaous labirinth connecting with utricle and containing equilibirum receptors
230
Ampulla of semicircular canal/duct
Widened end of each
231
Cochlea
Spiral end of bony labryth
232
Cochear duct,
section of membranous labith within cochlea containing hearing receptors and connected to saccule
233
Track flow of kidney blood supply
Renal artery - Interlobular arteries - arcuate arteries - radiate arteries - venae rectae
234
