Lab Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What did we use to measure muscle contraction
A
Transducer
2
Q
Where are the two places we stimulated the ulnar nerve
A
Elbow
Wrist
3
Q
What is a muscle twitch
A
Single contraction and relaxation due to single stimuli
4
Q
What is recruitment
What does it result in
A
Increase in amplitude of twitch
Beacuse of increase in amplitude of stimulus
Increased stimulus strength = increased no. of muscle fibers stimulated = greater tension
5
Q
What does the Epimysium surround
A
Whole muscle
6
Q
What does the Perimysium surround
A
Fascicles of muscle fibers
7
Q
What does the Endomysium surround
A
Individual muscle fibers
8
Q
Each muscle fiber is a single…
A
muscle cell
9
Q
Each muscle fiber has many…
A
Myofibrils
10
Q
Each myofibril contains…
A
myofilaments
11
Q
Threshold stimulus is…
A
the amount of voltage necessary to start a response from the muscle
12
Q
What is a suprathreshold stimulus
A
a stimulus above the threshold stimulus
13
Q
What is a submaximal stimulus
A
amount of stimulus necessary to start a reponse between threshold and maximum response
14
Q
What is maximal response
A
amount of stimulus necessary to start a maximal response
15
Q
The interaction between what type receptors causes Ca channels to open
A
DHP
Ryanodine
16
Q
What is EMG
A
the electrical activity of the many muscle fibers controlling the gross anatomical muscle
17
Q
What is co-activation
A
One muscle forcefully activated, there is a minor increase in activity of the other muscle
18
Q
What is the reason for co-activation
A
To stablise the joint
19
Q
What nerve was stimulated in the evoked EMG
A
Median nerve
20
Q
Increased stimulus results in an increased… of EMG
A
Amplitude
21
Q
What is Latency
A
The time elapsed from stimulation to start of muscle contraction
22
Q
What two things need to be known in order to work out conduction velocity
A
Distance - between stimulating electrodes to recording electrodes
Time - to travel from stimulus site to recording site
23
Q
Conduction velocity formula
A
Conduction Velocity (m/s) =
Distance (mm or cm) / Difference in latencies (s or ms)
15cm / 5ms - 2.5ms =
15cm / 2,5ms x 1m/100cm x 1000ms/1s = 60m/s
24
Q
What 3 things influence conduction velocity
A
Diameter of fiber
Temperature
Myelinated vs non myelinated
25
What is muscle fatigue
decline in ability of muscle to generate force
26
What is more efficent to stimulate: the muscle directly or the nerve that innervates it
Explain why...
The nerve
Smaller piece of tissue to stimulate
Therefore requires less stimulus energy and it branches throughout the muscle
27
What main thing occurs during fatigue
Muscle can no longer generate or sustain force
28
What causes submaximal contraction fatigue
Depletion of glycogen stores
29
What two things cause short duration maximal exertion fatigue
Increase in inorganic phosphate = slows release of P from myosin
Increase in extracellular K = decreases release of Ca from SR
30
Oxygen makes up... of whole blood
1/5
31
Hemoglobin has...
4 polypeptides:
2 are alpha
2 are beta
Each has heme group with Fe atom to bind with O2
32
What is unique about red blood cells (3)
1. They respire anaerobically
2. They have no nuclues
3. Produced in bone marrow = regulated by Erythropoietin
33
What destroys red blood cells
Where is it located
Phagocytic cells of the Reticuloendothelial system
Located in the spleen, liver and marrow
34
What is Jaundice
What are the physical appearance
Increase in Bilirubin in tissues because of:
1. increased RBC destruction
2. Liver dysfunction
3. Bile duct obstruction
Yellow skin colour
35
What is used to measure RBCs
Hemocytometer
36
What is Hematocrit
Ratio of volume of packed RBCs to the total blood volume
37
What causes Anemias
1. Decreased oxygen carrying capacity of blood
2. Decreased Hb content of blood
3. Decreased no, of RBCs
4. Iron deficiency
5. Vitamin B12/folic acid deficiencies
6. Bone marrow disease
7. Sickle cell
8. Hemorrhage
38
What does MCV stand for and what does it measure
Mean Corpuscular Volume
Measures volume of RBC
39
What does MCHC stand for and what does it measure
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin concentration
Measures average RBC
40
What is anemias
Reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood
41
What is Macrocytic anemia
MCV > 94 , MCHC = normal
1. Folic acid deficiency
2. B12 deficiency
42
What is folic acid needed for
RBC maturation
43
What is Normocytic normochromic anemia
MCV and MCHC = normal
1. Blood is loss via hemorrhage
2. Decreased marrow function
44
What is Microcytic hypochromic anemia
Low MCV , Low MCHC
Decreased Iron
45
What is Diapedesis
When WBCs leave the vasculature during inflammatory responses
46
What is unique about neutrophils
1. Granulocyte
2. Phagocytosis
3. Three lobed nucleus
4. Purple nucleus, light, small granules
50-75% of WBC
10-12um in diameter
47
What is unique about Eosinophil
1. Granulocyte
2. Secretions destroy parasites
3. Bilobed nucleus
4. Large, red-orange granules, blue nucleus
1 - 5% WBC
13um diameter
48
What is unique about Basophil
1. Granulocyte
2. Release of Histamine during inflammatory response
3. Bilobed nucleus
4. Dark blue granules which cover nucleus
Will become mast cells
0.5% of WBC
49
What is unique about Small Lymphocytes
1. Agranulocyte
2. T and B cells
3. Large nucleus with small band of cytoplasm
4. Light blue cytoplasm, purple nucleus
5. B cells will become plasma cells
30% WBCs
7 ym in diameter
50
What is unique about monocytes
1. Agranulocyte
2. Tissue macrophage
3. Blue-gray cytoplasm, kidney shaped dark nucleus
4. Will become macrophage
2-8% WBCs
15 ym in diameter
51
What is agglutination Rxn
Clumping caused by reaction between RBC surface antigen and plasma antibodies
52
What is Erythroblastosis fetalis
Mother had Rh-
Fetus has Rh+
Results in blue baby
53
What blood type is the universal donor
O
54
What blood type is the Universal acceptor
AB
55
What are the two clotting pathways and what is released in both
Extrinsic = thromboplastin released when vessel is damaged
Intrinsic = Hageman factor when vessel is damaged and it is exposed to collagen
56
What is needed in order to activate these clotting pathways
Calcium
57
What vitamin is needed for formation of prothrombin
K
58
What is the main function of Neutrophils
Blood phagocytes
59
What is the main function of Monocytes
Transform into tissue macrophages
60
What is the main function of Lymphocytes
Specific immune reactions (B and T cells)
61
What is the main function of Basophils
Secrete histamine for inflammatory response
62
What is the main function of Eosinophils
Secretions destroy parasites
63
What is fibrin
Protein that makes threads in the blood clot
64
What is Thrombin
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin
65
Steps of auscultation of blood pressure
1. Pressure cuff at 180
2. Blocks blood flow
3. Reduce pressure
4. BP = Cuff pressure - Korotkoff sound = systolic
5. Stopping of sound = diastolic
66
What happens to pulse when arm is lowered and raised
Explain why
Lowered = increase
Reason - hydrostatic and blood pressure in same direction = increases systolic pressure
Raised = decrease
Reason - Hydrostatic pressure and blood pressure in opposite directions = decrease systolic pressure
67
What occlusion eliminates pulse reading
brachial artery
68
What occlusion decreases pulse amplitude by half
Radial artery
| Ulnar artery
69
What is contractility controlled by
Conduction of APs along motor neurons and subsequent release of Ach at the neuromuscular junction
70
Steps up to Ca returning to SR and muscle relaxing (8)
1. Ach binds to nicotinic Ach receptor
2. AP moves down muscle membrane - depolarises muscle fiber
3. Signal moves down T-Tubules - releases Ca from SR
4. Ca binds to troponin
5. Troponin moves tropomyosin out of the way
6. Myosin head binds to actin - powerstroke
7. After contraction, muscle cell repolarises - Ca transported back to SR
8. Tropomyosin covers actin binding site
71
What is the normal range for Conduction Velocity
Range 1 - 120 m/s
| Normally 50 - 60 m/s
72
What is the main substance that causes yellow skin in Jaundice
Bilirubin
73
How does the cold affect pulse
1. Vasocontriction of blood vessels
2. Causes increase in blood pressure and heart rate
3. Reduces blood flow and pressure in extremities = reduces heat loss from extremities
74
What is the proportion of muscle fibers contracted at:
1. Threshold
2. Max stimulus
3. Above maximum stimulus
1. Few
2. 100%
3. Cant go over 100%
75
What can be the issue with chemical agents that cause tetanus
Can cause breathing problems
76
Antigens are known as...
agglutinogens
77
Antibodies are known as...
agglutinins
78
Where are Rhesus factor found in the body
All body cells
79
What is heparin
An anticoagulant
80
What are MCV and MCHC used to determine
if a person has anemia
81
What 2 things does the skeleton provide
Support
| Articulation
82
What can the EMG allow us to discover
Nerve and muscle disorders
Location
Extent
83
What was special about the capillary tube used in the hematocrit test
It was heparinised
84
Which gender has the higher hematocrit
Males
However the ranges overlap
85
What is a hemocytometer
a special microscope that counts individual RBCs
86
How do you calculate MCV
MCV = Hematocrit x 10 / RBC count
87
How do you calculate MCHC
Hemoglobin g/dL x 100 / Hematocrit
88
What formulas do we use to figure out if someone has anemias
MCV
| MCHC
89
What does the interval between T and P represent
Blood filling
90
Where are ryanodine receptors located
SR
91
Where are DHP receptors located
T tubule
92
Exam question: Describe recruitment in skeletal muscles
Increase in amplitude of twitch because of increase in stimulus strength
Increase in stimulus strength increases the number of muscle fibers stimulated which generates an greater tension
93
Exam question: What 3 factors affect conduction velocity? what is the normal physiological range for conduction velocity
Diameter of fiber
Temperature
Myelinated vs non myelinated
range: 1-120 m/s
94
Exam question: What are the histological differences between skeletal and smooth muscle
Skeletal:
Striated = regular orientation
Multinucleiated = nucleus along the edge because if cytoplasm - gives appearance of striated
Smooth:
Single nucleus
Unstriated = no regular orientation
95
Exam question: What is the function of neutrophils? how would one identify one
Phagocytosis - ingesting bacteria or other material
Three lobed
Purple nucleus
Light small granules
50-75% WBC
96
Exam question: What is agglutination reaction and why is it significant
Agglutination is clooting of blood as RBCs clump together
Does this by antibodies binding to foreign antigens
Antigens located on cell surface
Significant because blood clumps cause blocking of vessel which can cause death
97
Exam question: What causes jaundice
Increase in bilirubin in tissues
This is because of RBC destruction, where heme is released and is then converted by the liver into bilirubin
Can also occur when liver is dysfunctional or if there is bile duct obstruction
Causes yellow skin colour and sclera in eyes
98
Exam question: How and why does the cold affect pulse
Cold causes vasoconstriction in extremities
Reduces Blood flow
Reduces pressure
Reduces EMG amplitude
Reduces heat lost from extremities
99
Exam question: Describe the cause of the opening and closing of the AV valves. How does lub sound relate to AV valve
Greater pressure in Atria compared to ventricle = AV valve open
Atria contracts increasing pressure = blood flows through AV valve
Pressure now greater in ventricle compared to atria = closes AV valve to make sure blood doesnt flow back
Closing of AV valve produces lub sound
The opening and closing of the AV valve is influenced by pressure gradient
100
Exam question: Describe the physiological events that occur during the latency period (essay)
Latency is the time from stimulation to start of muscle contraction
1. Motor neuron the AP moves down axon into neuromuscular junction terminal
2. ACh released
3. Diffuses across synaptic cleft
4. Binds to nicotinic ACh receptors
5. Opens NA channels - allows NA to diffuse in and depolarise
6. AP generated - moves across membrane and down t tubule
7. SR release CA
8. Binds to troponin
9. Causes change in shape of tropomyosin
10. Actom ex[psed - myosin head binds to actin
11. Myofilaments slide
12. Creates muscle tension
101
Exam question: Describe the conduction pathway of electrical activity in the heart
SA node generates own electrical impulses in right atrium
2. Travels down and across atriums
3. Causes contraction of atriums via depolarisation
4. Reaches AV node - slight pause to allow ventricles to fill with blood
5. Electricle impulse travels down septum via bundle of His
6. Reaches purkinji fibers located in interventricular septum
7. Contraction of ventricles via depolarisation
102
Lub occurs after what wave
QRS
103
Dub occurs after what wave
T wave
104
What happens when T-P interval decreases as a result of increase exercise
Less time for ventricles to fill
Heart rate increases
105
What is the ranges for RBC in males and females
```
Males = 4.5 - 6 million
Female = 4.0 - 5.5 million
```
106
What is the ranges for hematocrit in males and females
```
Males = 47 +-7
Females = 42 +-5
```
107
What is the ranges for Hemoglobin in males and females
```
Females = 12 - 15 g %
Males = 13 - 16 g %
```
108
What is the range for MCV
82 - 92 micro meter 3
109
What is the range for MCHC
32-36 %
