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Lab Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Why is the duration shorter when we hold a breath after exhalation (2)

A
  1. Rapid build up of CO2 in blood (hypercapnia)

2. Increase hypercapnia is stronger stimulus to breathe than hypoxia

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2
Q

What is hypercapnia

A

Build up of CO2 in blood

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3
Q

What happens to heart rate when we hold our breath

A

Slows down

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4
Q

What happens to respiratory and pulse rate during exercise

What happens after exercise

A

Both increase

Remains elevated to remove excess CO2

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5
Q

What is the formula for CO2 chemistry

A

CO2 + H2O = Carbonic acid = H + Bicarbonate

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6
Q

What is the control center that controls ventilation

A

Medulla oblongata

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7
Q

What detects changes in CO2

A

Chemoreceptors

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8
Q

What happens during hyperventilation (3)

A
  1. Increase breathing rate
  2. CO2 below normal
  3. Apnea occurs right after
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9
Q

What is Apnea

A

Absence of breathing

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10
Q

What is Hypoventilation (3)

A
  1. Breathing rate slows
  2. CO2 increases (hypercapnea)
  3. Causes increased breathing rate
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11
Q

Does expired air or inspired air have a greater volume

Why

Hence we should apply what when measuring volume

A

Expired air

Because of warming and humidification

Volume correction

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12
Q

Vital capacity is (equation)

A

Inspiratory reserve volume +
Expiratory reserve volume +
Tidal volume

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13
Q

What is tidal volume

A

Amount of air inhaled and exhaled at rest

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14
Q

Vital capacity (def)

A

After a normal exhalation breathe in as deeply as possible then exhale forcefully

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15
Q

What is vital capacity (VC) a indicator of

A

Restrictive lung disease

e.g. pulmonary fibrosis

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16
Q

What is forced expiratory volume

A

The volume of air that a person can forcibly expire in 1 second

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17
Q

What is forced expiratory volume (FEV) a indicator of

A

Obstructive lung disease

e.g. asthma

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18
Q

What is a buffer

A

A substance that stabilises the pH of a solution

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19
Q

What happens if there is small amount of acid or base added to a buffer solution

What happens if there is small amount of acid or base added to a UNbuffered solution

A

No change in pH

Large change in pH

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20
Q

How did we show the effects of exercise in lab

A
  1. Added NaOH to water (pink)
  2. Blew bubbles into solution which adds CO2
  3. Formation of carbonic acid
  4. Solution cleared
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21
Q

What happened when the individual exercised in the lab experiment (3)

A
  1. Increased ventilation due to increase in CO2
  2. CO2 in blood DOES NOT CHANGE
  3. CO2 in breath DOES NOT CHANGE
  4. The time to change solution from pink to clear is roughly the same
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22
Q

What happens if the respiratory rate is increase during the lab experiment

A

The time of change will decrease

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23
Q

What is Eupnea

A

Normal respiration

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24
Q

What is hyperpnea

A

Abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing due to increased CO2 levels

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25
What is dyspnea
Difficult or labored breathing
26
What is polypnea
Increased respiratory rate
27
What is tachypnea
Excessively rapid respiratory rate
28
What is anoxia
Total lack of oxygen
29
What is Hypercapnia
Excess CO2 in blood
30
What is Asphyxia
Lack of oxygen resulting in death
31
What is atelectasis
collaspe of the alveoli
32
What is dead space
Respiratory passages where gas exchange does not occur
33
Hyperventilation is not driven by...
CO2
34
What muscles are used in forced inhalation
Abdominal Scalenes Sternocleidomastoid
35
Why were your respiratory volume measurements corrected with the BTPS factor
Air outside = room temp and dry Air inside lungs = body temp and saturated with water
36
List the pathway of air from outside into the alveolus
``` Nasal cavity Nasopharynx pharynx trachea primary bronchi secondary bronchi bronchioles respiratory bronchioles alveolar sacs alveoli ```
37
What is the mucociliary ladder
picks up dust, pollen, fibers etc that come in with the air and transports them upwards in the trachea towards the esophagus where they are removed from the respiratory system and swallowed
38
What is the main function of the kidney
To control fluid and electrolyte balance
39
What do osmotic pressures control
Cell shape
40
What do ionic concentrations control
Gradients
41
How do we lose salts and water from our bodies
1. Evaporation = conduction and convection 2. Feces, tears, sweat 3. Excretion via the kidneys
42
What are the 4 systems that regulate Na content
Natriuretic peptide = hormone from the heart Vasopressin (ADH) = hormone from posterior pituitary Aldosterone = hormone from adrenal cortex Pressure natriuresis
43
What is pressure natriuresis
Increase of renal perfusion leads to decrease of sodium reabsorption and increases sodium excretion
44
What do these 4 systems also affect
Water distribution | Production of urine
45
What causes ADH to be released What does it result in
Increases plasma osmolarity Decreases plasma volume Results in: Increased water retention
46
What causes aldosterone to be released What does it result in
Decreased plasma volume Decreased plasma osmolarity = decreased ECF Na Results in: Increased Na and water retention
47
What causes Natriuretic peptides to be released What does it result in
Increased plasma volume (stretching of the cardiac wall) Increased ECF Na Results in: Decreased Na reabsorption and water retention
48
What causes the release of pressure natriuresis and diuresis What does it result in
Increased plasma volume Results in: Increased urine output Increased Na excretion
49
What happens when someone who is normal hydrated has isotonic gatorade solution
1. Increase plasma volume 2. Increase blood pressure 3. No change to plasma osmolarity 4. Increase in volume of urine 5. pH no change 6. Specific gravity no change
50
What happens to the 4 systems with the normal hydrated isotonic gatorade solution
ADH = no change because of no change in osmolarity Aldosterone = no change because increased ECF volume = increased plasma volume + pressure Natriuretic peptides = increase because increased plasma volume and pressure causes stretching of cardiac wall Pressure natriuresis and diuresis = Increase ECF volume = increased blood pressure = increased GFR + urine and Na output
51
Why will specific gravity not change
Intake was isotonic
52
What happens when someone who is normal hydrated and drinks pure water
``` Increase blood pressure Decrease plasma osmolarity Volume of urine increases pH no change Specific gravity decreases ```
53
What happens to the 4 systems with the normal hydrated drinking pure water
ADH = decreases, due to increase ECF volume and decreased osmolarity Aldosterone = no secretion Natriuretic peptides = Less than isotonic Pressure natriuresis and diuresis = Decrease in plasma osmolarity results in greater urine production
54
What happens when someone who is overhydrated drinks pure water
``` High ECF volume Low ECF osmolarity Low urine concentration High urine volume pH increase Decrease Specific gravity ```
55
What happens to the 4 systems with the overhydrated drinking pure water
ADH = decrease Aldosterone = no secretion NP = secreted Pressure N and D = increase sodium and urine excretion
56
What happens when someone who is dehydrated drinks pure water
Volume of urine no increase pH no change Specific gravity no change (may decrease)
57
What happens to the 4 systems with the dehydrated drinking pure water
ADH = increase secretion Aldosterone = increase secretion = increase Na and water retention NP = no effect due to decrease plasma volume Pressure N and D = no effect
58
What is the hormone that is secreted in response to angiotensin II
Aldosterone
59
A dehydrated person would have high/low: Urine volume Specific gravity Na Cl Why
Low High Low Because they are secreting ADH, secreting aldosterone and therefore would have low Na Cl as it is reabsorbed
60
A person who has drunk alcohol would have high/low Urine volume Specific gravity Na Cl Why
High Low High Because alcohol inhibits ADH
61
Which part of the nephron is responsible for reabsorption of most of the urine volume
Proximal convoluted tubule
62
Define the term countercurrent multiplier
creating the concentration gradient present around the nephron in the medulla of the kidney at the loop of Henle
63
What might the presence of glucose in the urine indicate
Diabetes Mellitus
64
Where does ADH act on
Collecting ducts
65
Where does aldosterone act on
Distal convoluted tubule
66
What are glomerular capillaries surrounded by
Podocytes
67
What might the presence of protein in the urine indicate
Damage to the glomerular filter (nephritis)
68
Describe the composition of urinary casts and explain how casts get into the urine
Precipitated proteins WBCs Renal epithelial cells
69
Digestion of starches experiment: was starches and maltose present in each of the test tubes: 1. Starch + Water 2. Starch + Saliva 3. Starch + Saliva + HCL 4. Starch + Bolied saliva
``` Starches = Lugols Maltose = Benedicts ``` 1. Starch (+) Maltose (-) because no enzyme 2. Starch (-) Maltose (+) 3. Starch (+) Maltose (-) because of Wrong pH 4. Starch (+) Maltose (-) because denatured enzyme
70
Digestion of protein experiments: what was the appearance and explanation of each: 1. Protein + pepsin @ 37 2. Protein+pepsin+HCl @ 37 3. Protein+pepsin+HCl @ 0 4. Protein+HCl @ 37 5. Protein+pepsin+NaOH@ 37
1. A = less E = wrong pH 2. A = a lot less E = correct pH and temp 3. A = same E = wrong temp 4. A = same E = no enzyme 5. A = same but yellow E = wrong pH
71
Digestion of fat experiments: what happened to pH over time for each: 1. Cream + bile 2. Cream + Pancreatin 3. Cream + bile + Pancreatin 4. Cream + water
1. No change 2. Decrease 3. Large decrease 4. No change
72
Why did the Cream + bile + pancreatin have a large decrease
Bile salts emulsify the fat and increase the surface area for attack by pancreatic lipases
73
What enzymes can be found in the intestinal epithelium
Sucrase Maltase Lactase
74
What enzymes can be found in the pancreas
Protease Lipase Amylase
75
What structural adaptations of the small intestine help to increase the rate of digested absorption
Increased surface area from: ``` Folds= rugae Villi = folds Microvilli = folds in cell membrane ```
76
What are the functions of the liver
Production of bile Storage of fat Storage of carbs Conjugation of toxins to water soluble molecules
77
What are pancreatic juices produced by where is it secreted
Acinar cells Pancreatic duct system to be released in the duodenum
78
What produces insulin where is it secreted
Beta cells in islets of langerhans secreted into blood
79
What level of pH does pepsin function at
Low
80
Why does fat digestion result in a decrease in pH
The formation of fatty acids lowers the pH of the lumen
81
How does the absorption of fat differ from the absorption of glucose and amino acids (4)
Fat absorption requires bile Increases the effectiveness of lipase Fatty acids form chylomicrons in intestinal epithelial Exocytosis of chylomicrons to lymph vessels
82
What are the things you observe in the urinary sediment sample
``` Epithelial cells Cellular casts Bacteria RBC WBC Cotton fibers ```
83
What is polyuria Why
Frequent urination Increased urine production because glucose spills in and draws water with it
84
What is Polydipsia Why
Frequent drinking Loss of water stimulates thirst
85
What is Polyphagia Why
Frequent eating Cells cannot use sugar Patient must eat more protein and lipids
86
Exam question: What stimulates vasopressin release? What are the effects of vasopressin?
Increase in plasma osmolarity Decrease in plasma volume Results in: Increase water retention Insertion of aquaporins in corticol and medullary collecting ducts
87
Exam question: | Describe the renin – angiotensin – aldosterone pathway
1. Renin is released when blood volume or Na levels in body are low or when K+ is high 2. The system regulates blood pressure and fluid balance 3. Renin carries out conversion of angiotensinogen into angiotensen 1 4. Angiotensin converting enzyme converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2 5. Angiotensin 2 causes vasocontriction and stimulates aldosterone to be secreted 6. Aldosterone causes renal tubules to increase reabsorption of Na and water into blood 7. This leads to excreting K+, increase ECF and increase BP
88
Exam question: | Name five things one might observe in a urinary sediment sample.
``` Epithelial cells Cellular casts Bacteria Cotton fibers Mucus RBCs WBCs ```
89
Exam question: | What would the expected results be if an untreated diabetic took the glucose tolerance test?
Higher than normal fasted blood glucose level Blood glucose level peaks much higher often surpassing renal threshold Takes 3-5 hours to return to baseline levels within 2 hours Osmotic diuresis removes glucose Insulin independent cells utilize glucose
90
Exam question: | Compare the causes of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Type 1: 1. 10% of diabetic population 2. Inadequate secretion of insulin from beta cells in the islets of Langerhans 3. Destruction of beta cells is due to autoimmune disease Type 2: 1. 90% of diabetic population 2. Insulin levels are normal 3. However, insulin receptors are resistant to insulin 4. Decrease responsiveness of insulin 5. Often associated with obesity
91
Exam question: | Describe the proper disposal of five items used in the glucose lab.
``` Multi stick pH stick = Biohazard Lancets = Sharps Glucose Test strip = Biohazard Gauze = Biohazard Urine = Sink Gloves = Biohazard ```
92
Exam question: | What spirometry test is used as an indicator of obstructive lung disease? Why?
FEV is used as an indicator of obstructive lung disease FEV is the forced expiratory volume The volume of air forcibly exhaled in 1 second Air passageways are blocked or reduced diameter Takes longer to clear spaces FEV clears 80%in the first second
93
Exam question: Describe the correct conditions for optimal starch digestion under Biology 66 lab conditions. How were these results confirmed?
37 degrees = temp of body = optimal temperature for enzymes Neutral pH = enzyme works best at Saliva + starch is best for optimal starch digestion Saliva contains amylase which breaks down starch into sugars Lugols tests for starch Benedicts tests for sugar 1 hour incubation enough time for digestion Starch (-) Sugar (+)
94
Exam question: Small intestine What are the main functions of this organ? Describe the two anatomical features evident in this figure. How do these structural adaptations of the organ facilitate its function?
For digestion and absorption Folds called villi that increase surface area for absorption Villi have microvilli on the surface which possess digestive enzymes to digest food for absorption
95
Inspiratory reserve volume
Amount of air that can be drawn in after normal inhalation
96
Total lung capacity
Total amount of air in lungs after maximal inhalation
97
What is the most common urinary sediment
Epithelial cells
98
What are the greatest immediate risks to life in an individual with diabetes
Production of acidic ketones = Ketoacidosis Insulin shock High blood sugar
99
Why do obese people usually have type 2 (4)
Adipose tissue decreases sensitivity to insulin because: Receptor ratio decreases Receptors damaged Sugar entry is decreased
100
If a diabetic took the glucose tolerance test... Does their blood sugar level drop Why
Yes, but much slower Because neurons and RBCs dont require insulin to make glucose enter
101
What happens when endothelial cells become sticky What happens as a result
Glycolsylated Bloackages = reduced blood flow
102
Why were people asked to fast for 4 hours
To make sure they are close to the same blood glucose levels

Bio 66 (22 decks)

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