1
Q
What are the elements that indicate abnormal psychology?
A
- behaviour
- thoughts
- feelings
- physiology
2
Q
What is meant by “abnormal” psychology?
A
no consensus definition but there are clear elements of abnormality:
- subjective distress
- maladaptiveness
- statistical deviancy: uncommon
- violation of social norms
- social discomfort
- irrationality/unpredictability
- dangerousness: dangerous to self/others
3
Q
What is subjective distress?
A
psychological suffering
4
Q
What is maladaptiveness?
A
impairment in important area(s) of life
5
Q
What is violation of social norms?
A
acting outside of cultural standards
6
Q
What is social discomfort?
A
causing others to feel uncomfortable
7
Q
What is irrationality/unpredictability?
A
unexpected responses to stressors
8
Q
How do we classify psychological disorders?
A
- standardised manuals
1. American Psychological Association (US & Canada): DSM-5
2. World Health Organisation: ICD-10
9
Q
What is the definition of mental disorder in DSM-5?
A
syndrome present in individual & involves clinically significant disturbance in behaviour/emotion regulation/cognitive functioning
10
Q
Why do we classify psychological disorders?
A
allows structured info to:
- communicate
- define what counts as “abnormal”
- delineates psychological difficulties that warrant insurance reimbursement
- facilitate research
- identifies disorders that mental health professionals treat
- organise meaningfully
11
Q
How does classification of mental illness influence how we perceive it?
A
- social & political implications
- stigma against ppl w/
- stereotyping: certain behaviours accompany
- labeling: person’s self-concept affected by given diagnosis
- affects how we feel about: willingness to tell others, physical proximity, impact, treatment
12
Q
How does research distinguish effective treatments for psychological disorders?
A
avoids misconception & error by adopting scientific attitude + approach to study of abnormal behaviour
13
Q
What is a good research design?
A
methods that distinguish b/w what is observable vs. hypothetical/inferred
14
Q
What are sources of info?
A
- case studies
- direct observation
- psychophysiological variables
- self-report data
- implicit behaviour
15
Q
What is implicit behaviour?
A
ppl performing task that demonstrates their beliefs about how closely 2 things are related to each other
16
Q
What kind of ppl should be studied?
A
- individuals similar in behavioural abnormalities
- group that mirrors underlying population in important ways
- large, randomly selected groups
17
Q
What are the reasons for choice of ppl to study?
A
- to identify what is common to abnormality
- to generalise findings of study to population at large
18
Q
What is the criteria for the comparison group?
A
ppl who:
- do not exhibit disorder
- comparable in other major ways to criterion group
19
Q
What are observational research designs?
A
- studies things as they are
- excellent way to determine correlation
20
Q
What is experimental research?
A
- manipulates independent variable
- sees effect on dependent variable
- can determine causation
21
Q
What are examples of experimental research?
A
single-case experimental design: make causal inferences in individual cases
22
Q
What are analogue studies?
A
study approximation to item of interest
23
Q
How does society’s views of mental illness influence way ppl who have the illnesses are treated?
A
beliefs about causes affect:
- what treatments are used
- how disorders are prevented
24
Q
How does stigma of mental illness impact all of us?
A
higher level of stigma = higher psychophysiological reaction towards interaction w/ ppl w/ illness
- experience seen as unpleasant -> avoid ppl w/ illnesses
- unwilling to work/socialise w/ them
25
How can we counteract the stigma of mental illness?
- more anti-stigma campaigns
| - change societal values & expectations in defining abnormality
26
What is prevalence?
of active cases in population in given period of time (%)
27
What are different types of prevalence?
- point: at this 1 moment in time
- one-year
- lifetime
28
What is incidence?
of new cases in population over given period of time
29
What are the principles of sound, comprehensive studies?
- uses statistical approach
- maintains openness to new ideas
- shows respect for dignity & integrity of all persons of study
30
What are theories of etiology?
- good observation is timeless
- interpretation of causes of behaviour subject to bias
- observations interpreted thru dominant paradigm
31
What is demonology?
early idea about origins of mental illness
- supernatural theory: bad spirits dwell within person & control mind + body
- treatments: ostracism, exorcism & trepanning
32
What is somatogenesis theories?
- Hippocrates
- something physically wrong, disturbs thought & behaviour
- physical problem -> physical treatment
- 4 humors: blood, black vile, yellow bile & phlegm
33
What is psychogenesis theories?
mental illness due to psychological malfunction
34
What is paradigm?
viewpoint/set of assumptions about how to understand, study or treat psychological disorders
35
What is psychoanalytic paradigm?
- classic Freudian theory
| - examines structure of mind: ID, Ego & Superego
36
What is the ID?
pleasure principle (basic urges for food, water, warmth, sex; present at birth)
37
What is the ego?
reality principle (task is to deal w/ reality; begins to develop from id after 6 months)
38
What is the superego?
conscience (what is "right" & "wrong"; develops thruout childhood)
39
What are defense mechanisms?
- denial
- displacement
- projection
- rationalisation
- reaction formation
- regression
- repression
- sublimation
40
What is repression?
pushing unacceptable impulses/thoughts into unconscious
41
What is denial?
disavowing some traumatic experience & pushing into unconscious
42
What is projection?
attributing unacceptable impulses/desires onto others
43
What is displacement?
redirecting emotional response from potentially dangerous object to substitute
44
What is rationalisation?
inventing reason for action/attitude normally considered unreasonable
45
What is reaction formation?
converting one's feelings to its opposite
46
What is regression?
retreating to behavioural patterns of earlier age
47
What is sublimation?
converting sexual/aggressive impulses into socially valued behaviour
48
What is biological paradigm?
mental illness result of dysfunctional biological processes
- biochemistry: abnormalities in neurotransmitters/hormones
- behavioural genetics: genetic/epigenetic processes
- biological insults: damaged biological processes
49
What is temperament?
- person's reactivity & characteristic ways of self-regulation
- expressed in behaviour & personality
- strongly determined by genes
50
What are the big 5 dimensions of temperament?
1. openness: interest in new ideas & experiences
2. conscientiousness: tendency to be organised, efficient & reliable
3. extraversion: high energy/activity level, positive affect & sociability
4. agreeableness: tendency to cooperate & show compassion
5. neuroticism: tendency to experience negative affect
51
What are the 5 important neurotransmitters in psychopathology?
1. norepinephrine (NE)
2. gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
3. dopamine (DA)
4. serotonin (5-HT)
5. glutamate (GLU)
52
What kind of neurotransmitter is norepinephrine?
excitatory - producing general states of arousal/readiness for action
53
What kind of neurotransmitter is gamma aminobutyric acid?
inhibitory - inhibits behaviour & emotions
54
What kind of neurotransmitter is dopamine?
motivation, pursuit of rewards
55
What kind of neurotransmitter is serotonin?
mood, appetite, sleep
56
What kind of neurotransmitter is glutamate?
excitatory, involved in learning & memory
57
What is learning/behavioural paradigm?
behaviour is learned, psychological disorders result of & can be treated by learning
58
What are 2 primary learning processes?
- classical conditioning:association of unrelated elements due to repeated pairing
- operant conditioning
59
What is operant conditioning?
based on Law of Effect, behaviour followed by:
- pleasant consequences -> behaviour increase
- unpleasant consequences -> behaviour decreases
- pleasant consequences = +/- reinforcement
- unpleasant consequences = +/- punishment
60
What is Mowrer's 2-factor theory?
- solved issue of avoidance by combining classical & operant conditioning
- Step 1. Classical conditioning: individual responds emotionally to neutral stimulus
- Step 2. Operant conditioning: individual learns to avoid conditioned (previously neutral) stimulus
61
What is cognitive paradigm?
- cognition as stimulus
- psychological disorders = result of cognitive (thinking) errors
- person actively interprets situations, imposing meaning thru perception, interpretation, judgment, memory & reasoning
- > Results in disordered schemas
62
What are examples of cognitive explanations of specific disorders?
- depression: self-fulfilling (pessimistic) prophecies
- panic: catastrophising promotes more fear
- social anxiety: jumping to conclusions causes anxiety
63
What are psychosocial factors?
- poverty: poor housing, unsafe conditions, disrupted social ties
- parental stress: parental depression, family conflict, harsh parenting
- effects pronounced in early development (childhood)
64
What are factors in culture?
- stereotyping
- immigration stress
- discrimination/prejudice
- mental illness stigma
- approach to mental health
- presentation of illness
- limited accessibility of serves: language, community knowledge
65
What is humanistic/existential paradigm?
- insight-focused: does it make sense to me? why do I do the things I do?
- biopsychosocial model
66
What does the biopsychosocial model include?
- biological factors
- psychological (cognitive/emotional) factors
- social (& cultural) factors
67
How does the biopsychosocial model work?
- biological element in etiology, biological presentation & biological treatment
- psychological etiology, presentation & treatment
- social factor that contributes to etiology, seen in presentation of disorder & used to improve treatment
68
What does the Diathesis-Stress models mean?
diathesis + stress -> tribute to disorder
69
What is diathesis?
predisposition toward developing disorder that can derive from biological, psychological or sociocultural causal factors
70
What is stress?
response/experience to demands they perceive as taxing/exceeding personal resource
71
What are protective factors?
- influences that modify person's response
| - enough can lead to resilience: ability to successfully adapt to v. difficult circumstances
72
What kind of protective factors are there?
- positive
- negative
- inherent trait
- internal
- external
73
What is gene x environment interaction?
- genes create vulnerability for disorder
- genes contribute to behaviour, emotions & cognitive processes
- genes constrain influence of environmental factors exposed to
- environment override genetic influence
74
What is an example of gene-environment interaction?
Phenylketonuria (PKU) gene
- codes for liver enzyme involved in breaking down PKU
- too much dietary intake of PKU -> brain damage (result in low IQ)
- early detection of PKU gene + dietary restriction -> no problems (typical IQ)
75
What kind of environments exist?
- enriched: can turn on/off given genes
| - deprived: can activate/suppress otherwise dormant/expressed genes
76
What is gene-environment correlation?
individual's genotype can shape their environment
77
What are the kinds of diathesis-stress models of mental illness?
1. interactive model: amount of diathesis + degree of stressor -> results in different levels of disorder
2. additive model: amount of diathesis + degree of stressor -> combine in additive way
78
Why do people seek treatment?
- experiencing stressful circumstances
- referred by their doctor
- family/loved ones' request
- long-term distress
- personal growth
79
What kinds of treatment are there?
1. biological
| 2. psychological
80
What are examples of biological treatments?
- psychopharmacology (medication)
- electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
- transmagnetic stimulation (TMS): uses electricity to change brain functioning
81
What are examples of psychological treatments?
psychotherapy (many forms):
- evidence-based
- not evidence-based
82
What does evidence-based mean?
- efficacy studies found it efficacious
- treatment works to decrease disorder
- treatment group does better/as well as comparison group
83
How is efficacy determined?
- thru randomised controlled trials (RCTs) w/ 2 groups
1. active/treatment group
2. comparison group:
- placebo
- waitlist: no treatment
- other type of therapy
84
What does not evidence-based mean?
- someone's theory
- backed up by anecdotes
- hasn't been tested/tested enough
- found not as effective as comparison group
85
What are the types of treatment?
- medication
- psychotherapy
- common to combine together
86
What are examples of psychopharmacology?
- psychosis: antipsychotics - dopamine & glutamate
- bipolar mood disorders: electrolytes - lithium/"carbolith"
- anxiety: benzodiazepines - GABA
- depression: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) - serotonin
87
What are evidence-based approaches to psychotherapy?
- cognitive
- behavioural
- cognitive-behavioural (CBT)
- dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)
- family systems (systems)
- marriage & family therapy (MFT)
- interpersonal therapy (IPT)
88
What is cognitive therapy?
thoughts cause feelings & moods -> influence behaviour
- examines distorted patterns of thinking
- change person's behaviour by changing thoughts
e. g. modifying self-statements, changing interpretations of events
89
What is behavioural therapy?
treatment that recognises importance of behaviour, acknowledges role of learning & includes thorough assessment + evaluation
- modify behaviour, feelings will follow
- works well w/ children & anxiety disorders + some depression
90
What are examples of behavioural therapy? (1)
- expose therapy: use for phobias
- aversion therapy: pairing substance w/ obnoxious/unpleasant event
- modeling: showing someone preferred behavioural response to smth
91
What are examples of behavioural therapy? (2)
- reinforcement approaches: rewarding/punishing them for behaviour want to see increase/decrease
- behavioural activation: get ppl to engage in behaviours although they don't want to, effective w/ depression
92
What is cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)?
- incorporated thoughts & behaviours maintaining disorder
- works well w/ anxiety, mild to moderate depression, conduct disorder, bulimia
- 3 component model: ABC
93
What is the ABC model?
Affect: feelings
Behaviour: actions
Cognitions: thoughts
- A influences B, B influences C, C influences A
- changes in either one component causes changes in other 2 components
94
What is dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)?
- form of CBT
- most effective treatment for suicidal thoughts & behaviours + engage in non suicidal self injury (NSSI)
- designed for patients w/ multi-problems
- based on 2 categories of skills:
1. acceptance: distress tolerance, mindfulness
2. change: emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness
95
What is family systems therapy?
- used for children w/ behavioural problems in many situations
- getting into trouble across domains
- addresses each aspect, intervention in all domains
96
What is marriage & family therapy (MFT)?
- relationships & improving communication
| - change way family members interact
97
What is interpersonal therapy (IPT)?
- eclectic
- addresses way client relates to others
- works with depression & borderline personality disorder
98
What is humanistic therapy?
- client-centered
1. motivational interviewing: good for building commitment to treatment & substance use
2. Gestalt therapy: lack of agreement upon procedures, vague methods
99
What is Gestalt therapy?
means of teaching clients to recognise bodily processes & emotions blocked off from awareness
100
What is not evidence-based therapy?
1. psychodynamic:
- classic psychoanalysis: free association, analysis of dreams, analysis of transference, - psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy: object-relations, attachment, interpersonal focus
2. contemporary psychodynamic therapy
101
What is psychodynamic therapy?
broad treatment approach that focuses on individual personality dynamics
102
How is success measured?
objectifying & quantifying change:
- client self-report: client's reports of change in their symptoms/functioning
- clinician ratings: clinician's ratings of changes that have occurred
- family & friends report
- pre- to post-treatment scores on assessments
- change in client's behaviour
PSYC 300A
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Decks in class (6)
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