Lecture 2 Flashcards
How human behaviour leads to different outcomes for different groups => triple jeaopardy
1
Q
What do we talk about when we are talking about triple jeopardy?
A
- Categorization and (negative) stereotyping
- Solo status and salience of group membership
- Token status
2
Q
What groups are affected by triple jeopardy?
A
Different groups, but especially stigmatized groups.
3
Q
What are the thoughts of the people that use triple jeopardy?
A
People are probably not even aware that they are doing it.
It is very subtle and people might not even have a negative intention but it leads to a different outcome.
4
Q
What is triple jeopardy and how is it developed?
A
Phenomena that develop through social interaction between individuals within social groups.
5
Q
What is the relation between micro aggression and stereotypes?
A
Micro aggression might come from stereotyping.
Negative attitudes are more involved in micro aggression than in triple jeopardy.
And triple jeopardy does not lead to aggression.
6
Q
Where does stereotyping come from?
A
Categorization
7
Q
Why do we categorize?
A
The reason we use categorization is to simplify the world around us. If we wouldn’t categorize things, things would get very complicated and everything would be nuanced.
We don’t have the cognitive capacity to make sense of the world if we don’t simplify. So it has certain functional purposes.
8
Q
Ingroup vs. outgroup
A
- A very common categorization.
- Is someone part of my group (ingroup) or part of another group (outgroup).
- This is something we all do, we can’t escape from it.
9
Q
When does categorization become a problem?
A
When categorization is attached to status.
When the categories are not neutral.
10
Q
Low status vs. high status groups
A
- We attach certain status to certain groups.
- Status is not something permanent.
- Groups that are stigmatized and are discriminated against, are groups that get a low status.
- Status is dependent on a lot of factors, especially the context of where the groups operate.
11
Q
What determines whether a category is relevant or matters?
A
- Salience of the category
- Cognitive availability of the category
- Cultural importance of the category
12
Q
Salience of the category
A
The extent to which the category stands out, is easy to notice, is considered relevant.
- For example: after a case regarding George Floyd, the notion of racial minority/majority group becomes salient.
13
Q
Cognitive availability of the category
A
- Whether or not the category is readily available in our mind.
- It is related to saliency.
- Which category is more often or was most recently used?
14
Q
Cultural importance of the category
A
To what extent is the category considered important in a certain cultural context?
Whether or not a category becomes important is dependent on where the category is located or exists.
- E.g., royals vs. non-royals in some cultural contexts is important.
- E.g., in a religious community, whether you are part of a religious group or not is very important.
15
Q
What processes are similar across categories?
A
Low versus high status; ingroup versus outgroup processes
16
Q
How are stereotypes formed (cognitional)?
A
We perceive an (illusory) correlation between categories and traits.
- How we link the category to certain traits.
- The stereotype is very much related to how we connect certain groups to certain traits.
17
Q
When are stereotypes formed more easily?
A
In small groups and negative characteristics.
- E.g., overestimation of the relation between a certain ethnicity and criminality.
- “If you’re part of this group then maybe you intent to commit certain behaviours”
18
Q
Why are stereotypes so dangerous?
A
Because we don’t have bad intentions and are not even aware that it is something bad, this makes it even more dangerous and more prevalent.
19
Q
What are stereotypes?
A
Cognitive associations between membership of a particular group and certain traits, characteristics, or behaviours.
Stereotypes are about the link; the illusionary correlation.
20
Q
Who uses stereotypes?
A
Both ingroup and outgroup.
21
Q
What are the functions of stereotypes?
A
- Cognitive
- Social/cultural
- Emotional
22
Q
What is the cognitive function of stereotypes?
A
Understanding the social world
- It simplifies the way we see this world
- “A group will always behave a certain way”
23
Q
What is the social/cultural function of stereotypes?
A
Understanding what we belong to
- “Of course I act this way, because I’m part of this group”
24
Q
What is the emotional function of stereotypes?
A
To feel better about ourselves or our group
- Some stereotypes can be positive
- It is very much dependent on whether the group you are attached to has high connotations or a high status
25
How are stereotypes formed (socially)?
- Socialization
- Social roles
- Salience
- Personal experience
26
Socialization and the forming of stereotypes
It is very important to keep ourselves and our attitudes in check.
Children learn about stereotypes in their early years from observation.
- E.g., experiment with a white and a black doll and questions about which doll is prettier, uglier, smarter, nicer, etc.
27
Social roles and the forming of stereotypes
- Each of us plays a social role and interacts according to this role.
- Social roles can give birth to stereotypes.
- In societies where hierarchy is very close, you are doomed, if you are born in a family with low level social roles, you are more likely to be perceived a certain way.
28
Salience and the forming of stereotypes
- We tend to notice things that are rare/look unique/different from the majority).
- In a society, a minority is always rarer than the majority, and thus more salient.
- When a member of a minority engages in a behaviour that also stands out, people have the tendency to make a link between the group and the behaviour => generalization.
29
Personal experience and the forming of stereotypes
- Making a generalization of a group based on personal experience.
- “I’ve seen the evidence so it is true.”
- But have the things that they have seen also happened in other contexts? Probably not, but people tend to trust their own experience, which contributes to stereotypes.
30
What reinforces stereotypes?
Social interaction and personal experiences.
There is an interaction between personal experiences and other peoples experiences and what they talk about. This creates an illusion between traits and groups.
31
When can you make a generalization?
You can never make a generalization without evidence of research.
32
Stereotype content model
How we judge groups is on the basis of warmth and competence.
It is a plus sign with a horizontal line going from – (left) to + (right) that stands for competence and a vertical line with competence from – (below) to + (above) that stands for warmth.
33
High warmth + low competence according to the stereotype content model
- Paternalistic prejudice
- Low status, not competitive
- Pity, sympathy
- E.g., elderly people, disabled
34
High warmth + high competence according to the stereotype content model
- Admiration
- High status, not competitive
- Pride, admiration
- E.g., in-group, close allies
35
Low warmth + low competence according to the stereotype content model
- Contemptuous prejudice
- Low status, competitive
- Contempt, disgust, anger, resentment
- E.g., welfare recipients, poor people
36
Low warmth + high competence according to the stereotype content model
- Envious prejudice
- High status, competitive
- Envy, jealousy
- E.g., Asians, Jews, rich people, feminists
37
How are stereotypes maintained?
System 1: fast, instinctive and emotional
System 2: slower, more deliberative, and more logical
- Errors/shortcuts
- Subtypes
- Shifting standards
38
What errors/shortcuts maintain stereotypes?
Errors/shortcuts in
- Attention
- Appraisal
- Memory
39
Errors/shortcuts in attention
Attention = selective
- Confirmation bias = even though we are presented with information that is not consistent with our stereotype, we make excuses for why the information doesn’t count or isn’t true.
40
Errors/shortcuts in appraisal
- Differential appraisal = the same behaviour is perceived differently and evaluated on a different standard depending on group membership.
- Differential attribution
41
Errors/shortcuts in memory
Memory is stronger for consistent (versus inconsistent) information for our stereotypes.
42
How do subtypes help maintain stereotypes?
Members of stereotyped groups are not seen as prototypical group members when they disconfirm stereotypes.
43
How does shifting standards help maintain stereotypes?
Standard is shifted depending on who is being judged.
- E.g., men who are judged as less caring tend to be labeled as caring more easily when they show as much care as women do.
44
Study on shifting standards
Grades of black and white students were presented to the communicator.
The communicator had to communicate how well the student performed to a peer, the interpreter.
The interpreter had to estimate the actual grades.
45
What are the results of the study on shifting standards?
The communications were more positive about Black vs. White student.
- For the same grades, for the same standard, communicators tend to have a more positive evaluation about the black students than the white students.
The interpreters were more negative about Black vs. White student.
- If the communicator tells the interpreter the Black student is smart because they got a 7, the interpreter interprets this as that the Black student seems smart because they got a 7, so higher than expected.
46
What can be concluded by the study on shifting standards?
Communicators mis-remembered Black students as worse than White students. Despite the fact that the grades were the same or higher for the Black student.
Shifting standard: Black performance is described as “better” but understood as “worse”.
Good performance has a different meaning for audiences when applied to Black student.
So, the standards for different groups are different, and we evaluate a person based on the standard, but because you apply a different standard, you also interpret the person according to the standard.
47
What are the consequences of stereotypes?
- Differentiation between groups
- Homogeneity within groups
- Attributions of causes for behaviour
48
Differentiation between groups
We tend to overestimate differences between groups and underestimate differences within groups. This is what stereotypes are.
- We think that people of our outgroup are very different from us.
- We think that people of our ingroup are very much alike; the differences are very little.
49
Homogeneity withing groups
E.g., if they look like us, then they are the same as us.
50
Attributions of causes for behaviour
- Over-attribution => more group characteristics than situational explanation
- Ultimate attribution error
51
According to attribution of causes for behaviour, how will you react to something positive happening to your ingroup? And to your outgroup? And something negative?
Ingroup + positive = characteristic
Ingroup + negative = situational
Outgroup + positive = situational
Outgroup + negative = characteristic
52
What is the "kernel of truth" hypothesis?
That there is some accuracy in stereotypes
53
Is it true that certain behaviour comes from certain traits?
No.
- Maybe a group doesn’t behave bad, but they have been stigmatized so negatively that they have a need to resist. The only way for them to resist is by doing something that is noticeable enough to get listened to.
- Or maybe they structurally have no opportunities given to them, which makes it so difficult for them to get to the top that they have to engage in certain behaviour in order to to get the same opportunities.
54
Is the "kernel of truth" based on traits or social structure?
There is probably some accuracy in the stereotypes, however, where does this accuracy come from? Does it really come from the group traits? Or does it come from the social structure that make those groups more likely to engage in such behaviour?
55
What is the problem with the "kernel of truth"?
The problem is that people immediately associate it with traits. If you do this, the structural problems that underlie the behaviour will not get removed or addressed.
56
Are stereotypes accurate?
There are of course differences and similarities between groups, but stereotypes tend to exaggerate differences and underestimate similarities between groups.
57
True or false: stereotypes stay the same over time
False, stereotyping is a dynamic process – stereotypes change over time.
58
How can stereotypes be overcome?
Having a stereotype and using it are different things.
Suppressing stereotyping thoughts.
Correcting stereotypic judgments.
Activating counter-stereotypic information.
59
What can happen when you suppress stereotyping thoughts?
It can rebound.
- In order to overcome stereotypes we can suppress it, but it might not be affective because it can rebound.
- The more we think to ourselves “this person is not that”, the more we think that person is that.
60
How can we correct stereotypic judgments?
By embracing new information and making contact with members of a group that you think has a certain stereotype.
Organizations have procedures to correct stereotypes
- Top-down approach, this can help
61
How can we activate counter-stereotypic information?
If you have a stereotype about a group of people but you also have information that the stereotype is not true, you can activate that information and use that to counter the stereotype.
62
Why is it hard to change stereotypes?
Stereotypes are shortcuts when motivation or cognitive resources are low.
63
Why is there a rise in stereotypes and racism, even though we have a lot of counter-stereotypical information from the internet and from traveling?
A function of stereotypes is making us feel better about ourselves. If you feel like your group is superior to other groups, and people start to move to your country, compete with your group, get good jobs and are smart, this makes you uncertain and threatened.
They feel like the group of people takes away their jobs, are a threat to their kids and change their culture, even though culture always changes.
Because these people feel uncertain and insecure, they hold on to their stereotype that people that come to their country are worse than them and that their group is still better.
So, the idea of stereotypes helps them deal with their uncertainty.
64
What can be said about stereotypes in the long term?
Charlesworth and Banajil (2007 and 2016) have found a positive long-term change and stability.
65
Solo status
The phenomenon where a member of a minority group becomes the only one in advantage positions.
The idea that a member of stigmatized or disadvantaged groups managed to break the glass ceiling and become one of the few people who are sitting in leadership positions.
- E.g., the only woman in the board of directors
- E.g., the only black person in government
66
How are people with a solo status often described?
They are usually described as not prototypical positions for this group of people.
67
What makes someone with a solo status salient?
Someone with solo status is highly salient because they are:
- Physically different
- New
- Unexpected
68
What are the consequences of solo status?
- Attribution of causes to group characteristics (vs. situation); over-attribution
- Extreme evaluation (positive and negative)
69
What is the classical study on solo status?
Photos and sound recordings of group conversations.
Manipulation
- Black solo, man/woman solo or not solo
Results
- Solos are noticed more
- Solos are evaluated more extremely (polarization)
70
What can be concluded from the classical study on solo status?
That this is why members of minority groups sometimes experience stereotype threat. They know people in leadership positions evaluate them or scrutinize them more closely because they are the only one from their disadvantaged groups.
71
Stereotype threat
It comes from worry that one will confirm the stereotype about their group => affects their performance.
72
Tokenism
The practice of making only a perfunctory (without real interest, feeling or effort) or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting a small number of people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of sexual or racial equality within a workforce.
73
Token status
Being appointed to increase group representation.
74
True or only perception (perceived as token)
When someone of a minority group managed to get a leadership position, others might perceive that this person is just a token, even when this is not true.
75
Consequences of (perceived) token status
- Perceived as incompetent
- Generalization to group
- Erroneous (wrong) perception that unequal treatment is in the past
- Cognitive deficits in token
76
Perceived as incompetent because of (perceived) token status
Not hired on merit.
77
Generalization to group because of (perceived) token status
Relates to saliency, they tend to generalize your behaviour to your group because they scrutinize you more heavily.
If you change jobs and go to another company and they also have a person of colour, you perceive them to be a token as well, because that is what you experienced in your previous company.
78
Erroneous (wrong) perception that unequal treatment is in the past because of (perceived) token status
It gives the illusion that things are better and things are fine now and there is no point in revising or reviewing what they are doing.
79
Cognitive deficits in token because of (perceived) token status
Being a token affects your cognitive performance
- Related to stereotype trap
Burdened by worry
- You feel like you are a representative of your group, in leadership positions you feel like people notice you more, which will cause you to become more anxious and worry about you performance which will result in a low quality performance.
80
Classic study on token status
Participants can either join the discussions or become an observer.
Shared views with 3 videotaped confederates.
Same-sex group (non-token) or one male or female representative (token).
81
What are the results of the classic study on token status?
Participants who were tokens showed cognitive deficits (remembered fewer of their own and others’ points).
Observers had a better memory of tokens.
- The tokens are more noticeable
So, cognitive deficit is related to how they perform as a token.
82
When do people from minority groups take collective actions and when do they take individual actions?
You tend to take collective actions when the access is so close that there is no way to get to the top without other members of minority groups. But when it is open you tend to take individual actions because you don’t need to do it collectively and you know that there is a way to get there personally.
83
What is an open and what is a closed hierarchy?
An open hierarchy has the possibility of upward mobility, a closed hierarchy does not have this possibility.
84
What is the message that is sent by the presence of token/solo?
The presence of a token/solo sends a message that is is possible to get to the top by individual actions only.
85
What is the ambiguous situation that is created by a token/solo?
You tend to take collective actions when the access is so close that there is no way to get to the top without other members of minority groups. And when it is open you tend to take individual actions because you don’t need to do it collectively and you know that there is a way to get there personally. But when it comes to tokenism, it creates an ambiguous situation which makes it less likely for you to take collective action, because even though the action is restricted you know that there is a way to get there.
86
What is vital in determining whether or not to take collective or individual action?
The ambiguous situation
87
Why is it hard to take collective action when there is token?
When you try to take collective action or create a big change it is very hard when the leaders of dominant groups appoint tokens because of the ambiguous situation that leads to individual actions. This is why it takes longer to get organized and the organized movement might even never come become of this.
88
How do the minority group members that succeeded respond?
No support for protest/resistance.
Start identifying with new group (group of leaders/managers/etc.).
No motivation to help former group members.
89
What is the response of the dominant group
Evidence of open hierarchy (legitimacy).
Observed injustice fails to lead to support for action.
90
What is the difference between solo status and token status?
Solo status: being the only one of the group.
Token status: being chosen because of your group.
91
What was in the paper of this week on tokenism?
According to the paper from this week, it is all about focus of attention. Tokenism helps, but is not necessarily good in the long run because of all the negative consequences.
In the paper they found that if they describe restricted access as something that advantages the disadvantaged groups, they approve it. The reason is that they can see how it is beneficial to the diversity of the university and the diversity of the students. But when they describe the implications of tokenism for people in Africa, they show more disapproval.
Tokenism is still a reflection of restricted access. What is good is making the access open for everyone, but also understanding that there are challenges associated with certain groups.
