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Culture and Diversity at Work > Lecture 6 > Flashcards

Lecture 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Article: Unilever says no to ‘normal’ with new positive beauty vision

A

The 10,000-person study, which was commissioned by Unilever, was conducted across nine countries. It found that:

  • More than half of people (56%) think that the beauty and personal care industry can make people feel excluded.
  • People want to see the beauty and personal care industry focusing more on making people feel better, than just looking better (74%).
  • More than half of people (52%) say they now pay more attention to a company’s stance on societal issues before buying products.
  • Seven in ten people agree that using the world ‘normal’ on product packaging and advertising has a negative impact. For younger people, those aged 18-35, this rises to eight in tent.
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2
Q

Rijksmuseum presents for the first time female artists in the honor

A

This indicates there is more inclusion in our society, especially for gender equality in art.

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3
Q

What are the ten qualities of a great leader according to the Forbes?

A
  1. Honesty
  2. Delegate
  3. Communication
  4. Confidence
  5. Commitment
  6. Positive attitude
  7. Creativity
  8. Intuition
  9. Inspire
  10. Approach

We don’t know if this is supported by research considering that Forbes is just a magazine. But apparently this is how people perceive good leadership.

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4
Q

Leadership characteristics

A

We usually associate leaders with certain characteristics, not in terms of qualities but in terms of gender/ethnic characteristics for example.

We tend to think of good leaders as white males, especially in the Western society. We can see that the number of female prime ministers is increasing but we still have a long way to go. Female leaders are still considered as diverse/minorities leaders. The population of women is in many countries bigger than men, but that female leaders are still considered as a minority is quite telling on how the world works for women.

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5
Q

Importance of leadership for successful organization

A
  • Diverse leaders
    o Do group characteristics covary/relate with leadership style or effects of leadership?
  • Diverse leadership
    o Which forms of leadership are optimal in a diverse organization?
  • Inclusive leadership
    o How can leadership be inclusive in a diverse organization?
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6
Q

Diverse leaders

A

Diverse leaders are leaders who are of minority backgrounds themselves.

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7
Q

What do we talk about when we are talking about diverse leaders?

A
  • Group differences in leadership style (gender)?
  • Who becomes the leader?
  • Do female leaders perform less well?
  • New directions in research on gender and leadership?
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8
Q

Are there gender differences in leadership style between men and women?

A

Yes, there are differences:

  • Evolutionary/socio-biological theories
  • Cultural theories
  • Structural theories

No, there are no differences:

  • Social category theories
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9
Q

Evolutionary/socio-biological theory

A
  • According to this theory there are gender differences in leadership style between men and women.
  • It’s about the association between gender and certain tasks (women take care of reproduction, child-rearing, and protection, whereas men do the hunting and the fighting). This leads to different styles of leadership that men and women use.
    o E.g., because men used to do the hunting, men are thought to be more effective in leading organizations that are more competitive. It is the effect of evolution.
  • Some excellent and quite interesting work that uses the generally accepted scientific rules about hypothesis testing, has come to predictions about how the conditions under which we evolved for much of our evolution (on the savannah, hunter/gatherer) might have affected gendered roles today.
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10
Q

What should you be careful about with evolutionary/socio-biological theories?

A

There is some not very good evolutionary research that simply justifies how things are today by pointing at evolution.

  • “If women were not predisposed to be competitive, then maybe we should not give women leadership responsibilities.”
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11
Q

Evolutionary approach

Article: facing the situation: testing a biosocial contingency model of leadership in intergroup relations using masculine and feminine faces

A
  • They have found that followers expect masculine-faced leaders to behave competitively and feminine-faced leaders cooperatively in intergroup relations.
  • For example, a masculine-looking leader is preferred in a competitive intergroup setting.
  • It explains how task features that were more clear and rigid in the past have an effect on how people expect men and women to behave. This expectation might be right for most men and women and therefore people in leadership positions try to behave according to these expectations, resulting in different leadership styles.
  • At the moment there is more of an active attempt to reduce gender roles, which might change how men and women approach leadership and how people perceive differences in leadership between men and women.
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12
Q

Cultural theories

A
  • According to these theories there are gender differences in leadership style between men and women.
  • The effects of socialization of girls and boys and men and women into gender roles overflows to other roles.
  • It is a bit similar to the evolutionary approach, but this theory focusses more on how the cultural, especially related to gender roles affect behaviour of men and women.
  • Maybe boys and girls were told that they had to behave a certain way because of their gender, and the games they played and the toys they got had these gender norms as well.
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13
Q

What are the differences in leadership style between men and women according to cultural theories?

A

Male leaders as competitive, analytical, directive and controlling (agentic).

Female leaders as empathic and caring, participating and intuitive (communal).

Task and directive versus interpersonal leadership.

  • Men tend to be perceived to excel in task oriented leadership and women are expected to excel in interpersonal leadership.
  • As a good leader you need both and it really depends on the work environment.
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14
Q

Structural theories

A
  • According to these theories there are gender differences in leadership style between men and women.
  • The differences are a consequence of power/status:
    o Leadership style/behavior depends on position in system (cf. Kanter)
    o Women and minorities have lower power/status
     E.g., they might be more democratic
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15
Q

What are the differences in leadership style between men and women according to structural theories?

A

Result in gender differences in

  • Democratic versus autocratic leadership
  • Indirect versus direct influence
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16
Q

Are women more interpersonally sensitive leaders according to structural theories?

A

No difference between males and females, but difference between leaders and subordinates (Snodgrass et al.)

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17
Q

Role congruity theory (Eagly et al.)

A
  • Certain groups are expected to occupy certain roles and then try to see whether or not a person from a certain group actually fits in this role
  • Gender socialization and organizational structure combine to disadvantage female leaders
  • This theory tries to combine different perspectives and the interaction between them.
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18
Q

What does the meta-analysis of leadership behaviour and gender of Eagly & Johnson on the congruity theory show?

A
  • Very small differences task versus interpersonal leadership (with no differences in studies in real organizations)
  • If there are differences in leadership behavior, they are the result of a combination of socialization and organizational structure
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19
Q

What does the role congruity theory seem to suggest?

A

This theory seems to suggest that combinations of opportunities and culture and socialization may work against women and ethnic minority groups, but another study shows that there are no differences.

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20
Q

Article: Academics as Agentic Superheroes: Female academics’ lack of fit with the agentic stereotype of success limits their career advancement

A
  • Male academics tend to be perceived as more authentic than female academics, they also tend to evaluate male academics more positively than female academics.
  • Academics perceive agency as more descriptive of the stereotypical successful academic than communality.
  • Early career female academics perceived highest lack of fit with this narrowly defined agentic occupational stereotype.
  • So when women are perceived to be lower in positions and they feel that way, this correlates negatively with work engagement, professional identification and career efficacy, and higher work exhaustion and exit intentions.
  • There seems to be the idea that academia is only meant for men, which means that men fit the characteristic of a good academic more than women. Lack of fit seems yet another barrier contributing to pervasive gender gaps in academia.
  • This shows that societal perceptions affect individuals.
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21
Q

Social category theories

A
  • According to these theories there are no gender differences in leadership style between men and women.
  • Differences in leadership behavior are only perceived.
  • Result of social categorization processes.
  • It is not about inherent differences between men and women but about categories that exist in our society.
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22
Q

What are the consequences of expectations and stereotypes according to the social category theories?

A
  • Category consistent behavior => positive assessment (Masculine behavior tends to look consistent with expected behavior in leadership)
  • Role incongruent behavior => backlash
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23
Q

Differential appraisal

A
  • Shifting standards (Glick & Fiske; Biernat)
  • In organization, when women tend to be more directive, tough, objective and speak up, these women are suddenly labeled as a bitch, but men who do the same thing are not labeled as a bitch because a different standard is applied to them. So the same behaviour gets a different treatment because of shifting standards.
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24
Q

Who becomes the leader?

A

Women less often emerge as leaders.

There is more of a barrier for women than for men to emerge as leaders.

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25
Q

What are the exceptions where women have more equal chances to emerge as a leader?

A
  • Social vs. performance-based tasks
    o Especially in leaderless organizations/group
  • Long-term interaction within a group
  • This is in line with gender expectations
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26
Q

What are the barriers in obtaining leadership roles?

A
  • Who is perceived as suitable is also determined by:
    o Current leaders
    o Societal developments
  • Opportunity to lead also depends on position and department in which you work (cf. Ely & Thomas)
  • Having a leadership position does not equal ability to lead.
  • The higher barrier for women depends on where they work/the context in which they operate. If there are more opportunities for women it will be a little easier for them. This is why affirmative actions are important.
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27
Q

What is the relationship between contextual messages and leadership aspirations?

A

Contextual messages can decrease and increase women’s leadership aspirations

  • When organizations apply regulations that seem to discriminate against women or that seem to provide less opportunity for women to lead, this sends a message
  • The context of a message plays a role in the way women perceive their leadership
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28
Q

What is the relationship between contextual messages and women’s leadership aspirations related to?

A

Influence of ambiguity

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29
Q

Article: Gender stereotypic tv-commercials affect women’s interest in math and their leadership expectations (Davies et al., 2022, 2005)

A

It leads to:

  • Lowered math performance
  • Increased avoidance of math problems
  • Lowered interest in math careers
  • Lowered leadership aspirations
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30
Q

Article: Exposure to female leaders (Dasgupta & Asgari, 2002)

A
  • If you want to change the context you need to make the context more friendly, e.g., to women. One way to change that context is by having more women be leaders. You change the message through changing the context.
  • Higher number of female leaders = less likely to express automatic gender stereotypical beliefs.
  • If you have more women as leaders, it can not only be inspiring, but it can also make it look possible to other women to become leaders themselves.
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31
Q

What does the professor think of people being inspiring and being a role model?

A

Being inspiring or motivational is very individual oriented, very egocentric, but being a role model is changing the context. You change the message.

32
Q

Gender differences in entitlement (O’Brien)

A
  • System justification beliefs (i.e., status quo is fair) contribute to the creation and maintenance of gender differences in entitlement
  • Problem: According to this theory women feel less entitled to high(er) earnings than men
  • Inferences about competence
  • “Depressed entitlement” = lowly paid individuals see their inputs as inferior and feel less entitled to higher pay
    o If the system says so, they accept and justify the system because trying to fight against the system is more taxing for them
33
Q

What is a solution for gender differences in entitlement?

A

Lowering system justification beliefs by showing that the status quo is not justified

  • This is also why role models are important
34
Q

What maintains the gender difference in entitlement?

A

Ingroup comparisons maintain differences (women compare their income to other women’s income)

  • If the whole group is discriminated against and they compare in the ingroup they will never know that there is a better world out there. It strengthens the system justification beliefs.
35
Q

Why do people make ingroup comparisons?

A
  • Proximity
  • Similarity
  • Self-protection
    o “I don’t want to compare it to a group with higher positions because they will make me feel bad about myself. By comparing myself with someone in the same position or with the same characteristics I can make myself feel better about myself.” This is actually dangerous because it justifies the system.
36
Q

Do female leaders perform less well?

A

On average male and female leaders are equally effective, only differences in certain situations (Eagly, Karau & Makhijani)

37
Q

In what situations do females perform less well?

A
  • In male roles
    o Makes sense according to the role congruity theory, they perceive that the role doesn’t match gender roles, therefore they might be evaluated more negatively, it might cause stereotype threat and as a result they might perform less well in these roles.
  • With more male subordinates
    o Even though in the structure these women are assigned to be their leaders, society says that it is rare that women are leaders, what is more acceptable is that men should be leaders. These women might feel evaluated negatively, they might feel restrained, the male subordinates might not trust her and they might feel like they should’ve been the leader.
38
Q

In what situations do females perform better than men?

A
  • In less male defined roles
    o They don’t feel like they have to prove that they can do the job well
39
Q

Are female leaders seen less positively?

A

On average people are slightly less positive about female leaders, this is more pronounced under certain conditions (Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky).

40
Q

When are females evaluated less positivelY?

A

When

  • Using stereotypically masculine leadership styles
  • In male-dominated roles
  • Male evaluators evaluate female leaders less positively
41
Q

When are females seen less positively?

A
  • There is little information about the individual
    o Women are expected to introduce themselves etc.
  • The evaluation requires more interpreting
    o It is important to have explicit criteria because it limits our ability for multiple interpretations.
    o When interpretation is open, women are more likely to be interpreted less positively compared to men.
  • The role or behaviour is gender role incongruent (Eagly & Karau, 2002)
  • The position is higher in the organization (in ethnic groups, according to Bovenkerk, lower level)
42
Q

How can less effective leadership be explained by solo or token status?

A
  • Solo or token status makes people evaluate more extremely, positive or negative
  • It is related to stereotype threat
  • They are more salient
43
Q

So, do female leaders perform less well?

A
  • Female leaders do not differ very much from male leaders.
  • When they do, it tends to be a consequence of processes like stereotypes, gender roles, or expectancies.
  • Such differences occur under certain conditions, like a male role or leading in a male dominated environment.
44
Q

What are new directions in research on gender and leadership?

A
  • The glass cliff for female leaders
  • The female leadership advantage
  • The queen bee effect
45
Q

The glass cliff (Tyan & Haslam)

A

Female leadership positions are more precarious (greater risk of failure and criticism).

  • Because they get scrutinized so badly (compared to men) they don’t feel safe in a leadership position. As a result of that there is a greater risk of failure.

Greater risk of failure.

More likely to involve units in crisis.

Through deliberate or inadvertent action.

  • So it can also be subconscious
46
Q

What do tabloids say about female leadership?

A
  • Business week: “After years of analyzing what makes leaders most effective and figuring out who’s got the Right Stuff, management gurus now know how to boost the odds of getting a great executive: Hire a female.”
  • Fast Company: “the future of business depends on women.”
  • Business Week: “Men could become losers in a global economy that values mental power over might.”
47
Q

Article: Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men

A
  • “Aspects of leadership on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders’ effectiveness”
  • “Aspects of leadership on which men exceeded women do not or negatively relate to leaders’ effectiveness”
  • Transformational leadership
    o Women tend to pay attention to the problems and they try to bring the organization forward and they try to transform it
  • Men tend to be less committed to the leadership position because their style is to give more freedom.
48
Q

Meta-analysis: women show more effective leadership styles for today’s organization

A
  • Women are stronger on transformational leadership (focused on future, employee commitment and creativity)
  • Women are stronger on contingent reward behavior of transactional leadership (giving rewards for satisfactory performance)
  • Men exceed women on ineffective leadership styles (i.e., passive management in and laissez-faire leadership)
49
Q

The female leadership advantage

A

Good leadership = ‘female’ leadership

Women manifest effective leadership styles (transformational and transactional).

Attitudinal prejudice against female leaders tend to lessen gradually.

There are continued challenges, especially in non-traditional settings.

50
Q

The queen bee effect

A

The prime minister of the UK a couple of years ago was seen as a queen bee because she tried so hard to assimilate to male styled leadership to the point where she didn’t give opportunity to women to be in the same higher positions because she believed that women are not as capable as men in being good leaders.

51
Q

Derks et al., 2016 on the queen bee effect

A
  • Women leaders assimilate into male-dominated organizations by distancing themselves from junior women and legitimizing gender inequality in their organization.
  • Consequence of the gender discrimination that women experience at work. They don’t try to erase or fight against the stereotype but they engage in behaviour that they think would model the behaviours of the majority groups. As a result the stereotype is not gone. It is even made stronger because they say that if women want to be good leaders they have to confirm to male stereotypes.
  • Not typically feminine response, but also applicable to other marginalized groups
52
Q

Comparison of actual work attitudes and motivation of junior academics to how they are perceived by senior colleagues (Ellemers, Derks, & van Laar)

A

Results:

  • No sex differences in actual commitment
  • Junior female academics were perceived as less committed than male junior academics by senior faculty.
  • Effect strongest among female senior faculty (vs. male counterparts)

Explanation:

  • Distancing from other women and female stereotypes
    o Experienced discrimination + low group identification: own work experience
    o They don’t want to be associated with the discrimination they faced because it hurts their self-esteem. They tell themselves that they are the exception, that they are different, that they are like men and therefore they deserve the position that men usually occupy. The behaviour manifests more discrimination and stereotypes.
53
Q

Paradox of equality (Ellemers, 2014)

A
  • When meritocracy is promoted (i.e., equality), men are more likely to receive rewards;
  • But this bias does not emerge with less emphasis on individual merit
  • Problem: merit plans are common/commonsense solution
  • Unintentional triggering of gender stereotypes and biases, especially when emphasizing merit
  • When individual merit is criterion (objectivity) —> less vigilance for bias
54
Q

Article: The Impact of Organizational Diversity Policies on Minority Employees’ Leadership Self-Perceptions and Goals

A

To increase perceptions of an open diversity climate, which may lead to enhanced leadership self-efficacy (i.e., to think you are a better leader) for situational minorities:

  • Do (because most effective):
    1. Value subgroup differences (multiculturalism).
    2. De-emphasize subgroup differences while valuing interindividual differences (individualize).
  • So the organization acknowledges the struggles while at the same time de-emphasize subgroup differences.
  • Don’t (because less effective):
    3. De-emphasize differences in favor of an overarching group membership (homogeneity).
55
Q

Article: The Impact of Organizational Diversity Policies on Minority Employees’ Leadership Self-Perceptions and Goals

  • In organizations that focus on the two dos, they would have:
A
  • Felt more capable of leadership role
  • Higher expected success as leader
  • More positive expectations
  • More ambitions to fulfill leadership role
56
Q

When you want to lead diverse organizations with more heterogeneity, what are the three points that you have to pay attention to?

A
  1. Managing actual differences between groups
  2. Reducing perceived differences between groups
  3. Managing expectations, emotions, and attitudes
57
Q

What are questions for leaders that every leader should pay attention to?

A
  • Is the organizational climate good?
  • Do we have the highest possible productivity?
  • Does our system work as smoothly as possible?
  • Are outcomes as positive as with homogeneous staff?
  • Do equal procedures lead to equal outcomes?
58
Q

What is the key to diverse leadership?

A

The key is group conscious

  • Do not ignore differences and unique struggles
  • Address influences of past group differences
  • Stimulate advantages of diversity
  • Prevent disadvantages of current diversity approach
59
Q

How can you affect change in diverse organizations?

A

By influencing organizational culture

  • Desocialization plays a role in what people perceive a good leader is

By influencing organizational structure

  • Make sure opportunities are distributed more fairly so people can see that there are more people from a certain group can be good leaders or be in higher positions

By influencing behaviour of personnel

  • You have to motivate people to for example be more reflective, to pay attention to what they say when they interact with people from different groups, to be more culture conscious because otherwise diverse organizations might not perform well.
60
Q

What is wrong in organizational culture?

A
  • Assumptions, values, convictions, ideology
  • Often implicit and unconscious
61
Q

How can you influence organizational culture?

A
  • First develop insight into current culture, then change
  • Change through altering vision, traditions, symbols, management practices, reward structure
62
Q

How can you influence organizational structure?

A
  • Communication structure, hierarchy, boundaries of management, task functions, interaction patterns, networks
  • Special attention to segregation and to unequal entry, promotion or exit
  • Change through attention to fair recruitment and selection, evaluation and reward, restructuring
63
Q

Influencing the behaviour of personnel

A
  • Behaviour, attitudes, perceptions
  • Very difficult
  • Change through
    o Addressing behaviour/attitudes/perceptions
    o Addressing organizational structure and climate
64
Q

What are the pitfalls in diverse leadership?

A
  • Giving feedback
  • Communicating feelings of trust
  • Feelings of justice and satisfaction
  • Estimation of needs of subordinates
  • Attributions for behavior/performance of subordinates
  • Subordinates’ expectations of leadership style
  • Giving access to power, use of power, effects of power on bias
65
Q

What can go wrong when giving feedback?

A

o Incorrect feedback
o Ambiguous feedback
o No feedback

66
Q

What can be the reason for giving ambiguous feedback?

A

Maybe due to intergroup anxiety and ambivalent racism

  • We are scared because we don’t want to discriminate against people or make people feel hurt, so we give feedback that is vague and ambiguous. But this actually leads to a sense of exclusion or discrimination.
  • Giving people from other cultures feedback can make you unsure if your style of giving feedback is the right one which can lead to more ambiguous and unclear feedback which is not helpful.
67
Q

What is the best way for giving feedback?

A

Standardized feedback

68
Q

What is important about communicating feelings of trust?

A

It is important to trust and understand each other in order to reduce intergroup anxiety.

69
Q

What areas need to receive attention with communicating feelings of trust?

A
  • Intergroup processes
  • Salience of group differences
70
Q

What can go wrong in the estimation of the needs of subordinates?

A

Sometimes we estimate what the subordinates need but they don’t actually need that. That’s why it is important to ask.

71
Q

What can go wrong with attributions for behaviour/performance of subordinates?

A
  • Don’t attribute a mistake to a group, they do it because of a personal fault.
  • Doing this creates more divisions in diverse organizations.
72
Q

Procedural justice

A

Perceived fairness; you have to make sure the procedures are fair

73
Q

Inclusive leadership

A

Leader behavior that creates a sense of inclusion and psychological safety that allows all team members to contribute their own perspective. It focuses on whether or not the leader is inclusive enough, whether they create psychological safety, whether they manage to uphold procedural justice, and try to embrace resistance and voices of their members.

74
Q

What does inclusive leadership consist of?

A

Procedural justice

Employees valued by leader (Shore et al., 2011)

  • When employees are given the opportunity to speak up they will feel more valuled

Actively working with resistance (Wasserman et al., 2008)

  • When there is resistance you address is instead of ignoring it
75
Q

Diversity mindsets

A

It is not only focused on the leaders but also on the team cognition reflecting team members’ understanding of their team’s diversity and how to engage with it

  • I.e., the understanding is specific to the team and the team’s composition and not a generic, one-size-fits-all understanding
  • E.g., we all understand we are different so let’s work with it. So when you have a meeting, instead of forcing everyone to have the same opinion you let people speak up, you allow integration of perspectives to happen instead of picking one perspective.

Culture and Diversity at Work (9 decks)

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