Lecture 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between a stereotype and discrimination?
A
Stereotypes are usually focused on illusionary correlations between traits and certain behaviour or characteristics.
Discrimination is a type of behaviour that stereotypes manifest.
2
Q
What is the paradox of equality?
A
When meritocracy is strongly promoted, non-marginalized groups are likely to get more rewards.
3
Q
What is the explanation of the equality paradox?
A
The equality paradox happens in more equal societies where people believe that meritocracy should be the only criteria to select people. There is an ignorance that maybe stereotypes and discrimination still exist. Perhaps, in more “equal societies” they think that a strong focus on merit as a criterion is the only recipe for tackling discrimination, but the people that are not marginalized will always been seen as people with more merit.
4
Q
What does the equality paradox result in?
A
Less vigilance for bias and the possibility of stereotypes emerging unconsciously.
5
Q
What is discrimination?
A
Treatment of an individual or group based on characteristics that are thought to be unacceptable.
Application of (assumed) group characteristics to individual (e.g., men are more agentic by nature and thus better leaders).
6
Q
Does discrimination need intent?
A
Not necessarily about the intention, but about the harmful consequences. It does not need to be intentional or malicious. Harm is an essential element.
7
Q
What are the outcomes of discrimination?
A
It leads to restricting
- Physical mobility (e.g., who can live where)
- Social mobility (e.g., level of education and job)
- Potential to develop positive self-worth (e.g., everyday racism)
o If you/your group are discriminated against you perceive you(r group) to have lower status. It effects the way people think about themselves. Discrimination is often against characteristics of the group but the effect is felt by every individual. - Physical and mental health (e.g., increased hypertension, depression, unhealthy/stress behaviours such as smoking, drug use, obesity; and non-participation in healthy behaviours)
8
Q
Everyday racism
A
Small insults and disparaging comments that people encounter on a daily basis.
Often causes stronger emotional reactions than large experiences such as unequal treatment on the job or housing market.
If we see public policy and what people react to, they only react to big experiences. But if people ask others to stop making jokes about certain groups or stop demeaning comments, people think they are just jokes and it’s freedom of speech, even though these small things have bigger reactions than big experiences.
9
Q
What is the general law for equal treatment in the Netherlands?
A
In recruitment and selection of employees and in offering goods and services one may not differentiate according to
- Religion
- Political beliefs
- Convictions
- Ethnicity
- Gender
- Nationality
- Sexual orientation
- Marital status
- Amount of work time
- Type of position
10
Q
What are the laws against discrimination (for certain categories)?
A
- General law for equal treatment
- Law for equal treatment of men and women
- Law against differentiation according to amount of worktime
- Law against discrimination disability/chronic illness (but acceptable if relevant to the task; e.g., air traffic control)
- Law against age discrimination
11
Q
What types of discrimination are there?
A
Direct vs. indirect
Conscious vs. unconscious
With or without intention
12
Q
What is direct discrimination?
A
Treatment where the objective is to exclude based on group membership that is considered to be unacceptable.
- There is a stronger intention to hurt people/ to discriminate against others
13
Q
What is indirect discrimination?
A
Actions that indirectly result in lower outcomes for certain groups. So, the behavior has another intention but has an indirect discriminatory outcome.
- Usually manifests in rules or regulations that are not designed to discriminate others but somehow also has a discriminative effect
- It is not meant to be negative towards a group
- E.g., men that have sex with other men were not allowed to donate blood
14
Q
What are the categories of discrimination?
A
- Malicious discrimination
- Selective discrimination
- Statistical discrimination
- Consumer discrimination
15
Q
What is malicious discrimination?
A
Discrimination that is explicit and intended to harm.
16
Q
What is selective discrimination?
A
Discrimination with more attention to specific characteristics
- E.g., women tend to have and choose children over their careers
17
Q
What is statistical discrimination?
A
- Discrimination with probability as it’s base
- Justified on the basis of statistics
- They still use characteristics to give them a different treatment
18
Q
What is consumer discrimination?
A
When the organization assumes that consumers or other employees will not want to deal with this person
- E.g., head scarf, overweight
19
Q
What is subtle discrimination?
A
Discrimination does not have to be blatant.
Subtle, daily forms have great impact on organizational functioning.
Micro aggression is subtle discrimination.
Subtle discrimination has a more negative impact on individuals because they don’t know what to do. They have to deal with the ambiguity of whether it is or isn’t discrimination before they can actually do something about it.
Public policies sometimes ignore this because it cannot be quantified.
20
Q
What is modern racism?
A
Modern racism is less overt/blatant than traditional racism, and is not always intentional (e.g., glass ceiling).
It is related to subtle racism/discrimination.
21
Q
What is aversive racism?
A
Aversive racism specifically operates implicitly alongside explicit egalitarian beliefs.
- Expressed in subtle, indirect, rationalizable ways. Aversive racists may deny their racially motivated behavior
- Consists of separate, disassociated positive and negative components
22
Q
What is symbolic racism?
A
Symbolic racism does not involve conflict.
- Aversive racists experience internal conflict because they hold subconscious biases and egalitarian beliefs at the same time [i.e., feeling of ambivalence].
It is directed towards one abstract group.
23
Q
Does workplace discrimination require negative intention?
A
It doesn’t require negative intention and it can be very subtle but it has a negative outcome on the employee.
24
Q
What is workplace discrimination associated with according to Dahanani et al.?
A
Employee outcomes through stress and perceived (in)justice.
Employees feel like their work is not appreciated and that their career progress is hindered by the discrimination, which causes stress.
This is why it is important for organizations to listen to their employees. It cannot be quantified and people can have difference experience but that doesn’t mean that companies should not address it. They need to have a way to listen to the employees and to try to take their opinions into account in their decision making processes.
25
When is workplace discrimination most detrimental according to Dahanani et al.?
When it is observed (versus experienced) and when it is interpersonal (versus policy).
26
Why is observed workplace discrimination most detrimental according to Dahanani et al.?
Observed = general presence, unknown threat for self, no coping mechanism.
It is hard to observe because when it is not clear whether it is discrimination or not you don’t know how to deal with it. This happens even when you feel it and you see that it is discrimination, and even when they don’t know they do it. It creates a sense of uncertainty, which causes you to not know how to deal with it.
27
What effect does workplace discrimination have according to Dahanani et al.?
It has specific effects for the work context
28
At what levels do the most frequent complaints of unequal treatment at work happen?
1. Entry
2. Work floor
3. Exit
29
What are the most frequent complaints of unequal treatment at work at the entry level?
- Position requirements in advertisements
o E.g., “we only want a Dutch person”, because of an assumption that Dutch people have a better understanding of the Dutch culture and the organization is a Dutch organization so being Dutch is an important requirement.
- Inquiries about vacancies
o E.g., denied when in fact there are vacancies
- Treatment during job selection interview
- Nature and manner of rejection
o Sometimes they don’t even get a letter saying why they got rejected
- Registration at temporary job agencies
o It makes the procedure more difficult
- Mediation by job agencies
30
What are the most frequent complaints of unequal treatment at work at the work floor level?
- Interaction within the work situation (e.g., being ignored, ban on language)
o Interpersonal discrimination is more powerful.
- Responsibilities and division of labor
o E.g., unequal division, pressure
o E.g., they are given responsibilities that don’t give them an opportunity to grow because they assume that you don’t want it that you can’t do it. Even though the opportunity can help them grow. This could be based on stereotypes.
- Transfers (manner and reasons)
- Terms and circumstances of employment (e.g., lower salary, late payment)
- Continuation to other or higher positions
- Unsatisfactory reactions to internal complaints of unequal treatment
31
What are the most frequent complaints of unequal treatment at work at the exit level?
- Threat/fear of ending contract
o E.g., Sometimes this happens on an informal basis where the manager tells you that if you leave now you won’t get a bonus or the compensation that you deserve.
- Ending contract by own request due to work circumstances
- Ending of temporary/permanent work contract
32
What is the law against discrimination on the basis of religion?
No (direct or indirect) differentiation on basis of religion
33
What is the exception of the law against discrimination on the basis of religion?
Organizations with religious/ideological base and uniformed civil servants
34
What are examples of the application of the law against discrimination on the basis of religion?
- Head scarf (color and model, not fact of wearing)
- Prayer (manage prayer times, but cannot forbid)
- Religious holidays (cannot refuse a day off for religious holidays, provided enough vacation days)
35
What is the contentious issue with the law against discrimination on the basis of religion?
When religious rights of one employee conflict with freedoms of another.
36
What is a recommendation for discrimination on the basis of religion on the work floor?
Clear behavioural codes outlining what is expected/allowed. When you draft this, this involves everybody. People that are discriminated and people that discriminate.
37
What are the most frequent complaints of discrimination on grounds of religion?
- Questions about head scarf
- Refused internship/job because of head scarf
- Comments about wearing of a beard
- Schools refusing teacher head scarf (consumer discrimination)
38
What do the targets of discrimination on grounds of religion often do?
They often give in to obtain/maintain job
39
What is the law against discrimination of sexual orientation?
No (direct or indirect) differentiation on basis of sexual preference:
- In work
- In offering of services and goods
- Does not require intentional offense
- No public incitement of hate necessary
40
What is the recommendation for discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation?
First address the issue with the perpetrator(s),
if that doesn't work report it to your supervisor or the police,
if that doesn't work report it to the Union or the Committee Equal Treatment.
41
What are the most frequent complaints of discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation?
- Offending comments at work
- Reports of insults not taken seriously by supervisors
- Double standards for sexual jokes
- Termination of contracts
42
Is discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation over- or under-reported?
Under-reported because people might believe it will not be followed up on.
- Because the Netherlands is the first country to legalize gay marriage there is the assumption that maybe there is no discrimination of people on the basis of sexual orientation. So when there is a report people might wonder if it really happened or if there is another reason that you feel that way. This might lead to under-reporting.
43
Is discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation increasing or decreasing?
There is mixed evidence about whether it is increasing or not.
44
How does unequal treatment on the work floor occur?
Decision criteria used
- Published job criteria (‘geschiktheid’) vs. hidden criteria for who is acceptable/preferred
- Use of criteria that are not clearly defined
Stereotypes
Heuristics
- Research shows that when people screen CV’s the first thing they see is gender, religion and ethnicity (big criteria) and after that the details.
Preferences of supervisors
Categorization
Intergroup anxiety (discomfort)/ intergroup processes
45
Why is it so difficult to identify unequal treatment?
1. Organizations are careful to not be caught
o They try to justify everything that they do in order to not get caught
2. Causal ambiguity in individual cases
3. Going together of appropriate criteria with inappropriate criteria
o E.g., knowledge of Dutch working culture may be associated with “Dutch”, particularly “White Dutch”
4. Disagreement about what are, and what are not appropriate criteria
o Such a disagreement can become a debate and even an argument
46
What is important about the disagreement about what are, and what are not appropriate criteria?
It is important to have a more comprehensive analysis of the whole situation, not only between people but also the environment, how the regulations work, in order to really find out whether it is discrimination or not.
- E.g., language fluency, what is fluent? People that speak Dutch but didn’t grow up in the Netherlands might have an accent and are therefore labeled as not fluent, even when they are very good in terms of writing and grammar. Another example is people from India with a thick accent when speaking English.
o Whether or not you think someone is fluent depends on the perceiver
47
Ambiguity of discrimination
Sometimes things can be ambiguous and there is a lot of nuance there, which makes it difficult to address. We can only do something if there is a report on it, but when it is ambiguous the victim might not even be sure that they are the victim of discrimination. Which will not lead to a report and because there is no report there is no follow-up. This makes it difficult to address this issue.
48
Is discrimination over-reported?
NO: difficulty seeing discrimination in individual/to yourself (vs. aggregated/to others) cases (Crosby)
NO: motivation to deny unfair treatment of self (Schmitt)
- When people become a victim of discrimination they have a tendency to deny because being a victim of discrimination hurts your self-worth. They don’t want to be a victim so they deny it and don’t report it.
YES (SOMETIMES) when discrimination did not occur but they felt discriminated: mistrust (vigilance)
- A certain group of people has historically been discriminated against all time and experienced a negative stereotype all the time. Because of this they build a sense of mistrust and vigilance for things. E.g., people of colour and police officers. This might lead to people of colour not being discriminated against but feeling like they will be discriminated against so they report it.
- The vigilance causes a minority burden, they always feel like they have to be on guard. There is an extra burden associated with being a minority
UNCLEAR: the burden of suspicion (Steele) = minorities carry the burden of being suspected by others
- So not everyone is equal, not everyone has to carry this burden
49
Many variables are correlated with group membership and may cause differential treatment (and sometimes appropriately)
There is this idea that some variables or some traits that seem legit, valid and appropriate are actually correlated with group membership and may cause different treatment.
Sometimes it is legitimate to have such a criterion, but we have to be pay attention to whether or not this criterion is actually needed in this context. Even if you need it, you need to pay attention to the potential consequences of it, which is exclusionary treatment against a group of people who might not have the skills or characteristics.
So, be very careful when you put criteria in a job advertisement.
50
Is language correlated with group membership?
If you put in the advertisement that you want someone that is good in English, you discriminate against people with a low socio-economic background because they didn’t have the opportunity to take an English course or a school where English was well taught. Even though it is legitimate, we cannot deny the fact that this type of criteria might produce different treatment.
When it comes to the language skills, people say that when you have good enough language skills you will be hired regardless of your colour, but in the Netherlands, the unemployment rate of people from the Dutch Antilles is very low, even though they are fluent in Dutch. So there apparently is an association that white people will be better in Dutch, so will pick those.
51
How do we do research on discrimination?
1. Statistical research with adjustment variables
2. Experiments (e.g., situation tests)
3. Other research
52
Statistical research with adjustment variables
Gives indication but is no proof:
- Omits variables with partially explained difference (e.g., years of service)
- Includes variables that themselves have been influenced by preceding discrimination (e.g., work experience)
- Key is examination of WHICH variables have been adjusted for
- You include all the possible variables, and when there is still a difference after adjusting for all the other variables then maybe it is explained by discrimination.
53
Explained and unexplained variance with statistical research with adjustment variables
Example: the whole pie is differences between men and women in terms of salary. The explained variance are the variables that explain the difference (e.g., age, position, skills). The unexplained variance is a part of the difference that cannot be explained by the other variables. The unexplained variance is probably discrimination, but this is not necessarily true, there could be variables you haven’t thought of.
54
How can the salary gap between men and women in the Netherlands be explained using statistical research with adjustment variables?
Average wage of women is 6 (government) – 19 (companies) percent lower than men’s (was 27% in 1990).
Part explanations
- Women work in less well paid occupations
- Women work in positions with lower career prospects
When we correct for age, education, position, sector, and length of service, difference is less (3-6%).
So, people will say that men get paid more because of all the factors just mentioned, and not because of discrimination. But maybe when it comes to this, the discrimination doesn’t happen in the salary part but because they have less well paid occupation due to discrimination for example. The level where discrimination happens might be different.
55
Why do ethnic minorities have a lower outcome on the labor market?
- Economic developments (fewer lower positions needed)
- Lower qualifications (lower education)
- Lower opportunities to get higher qualifications
o Education
o Experience with Dutch language
o Work experience
o Acculturation to Dutch society and customs
But does not explain all
Functioning of labor market
56
How do economic developments influence the outcomes on the labor market for ethnic minorities?
Because of economic developments, the kind of jobs that are available require high education/specialized jobs. This causes high unemployment with people with minority backgrounds. They are not discriminated against for their race but they are less likely to have the education required, which makes it more difficult for them to get a job and the unemployment rate is high. So there is a difference in outcome. What causes the differences in educational attainment? That is probably where the discrimination is.
57
Where do minorities tend to work?
Minorities with more segregated networks tend to move into lower, more ethnically segregated jobs.
58
Why do minorities tend to work in more ethnically segregated jobs?
- Less work history (higher unemployment)
- Lower faith among employers in companies where minorities have worked
- Less knowledge of employers with persons and agencies where minorities often obtain reference letters
o What sort of company is this?
- Lower estimation of capacities
- Direct recruitment of candidates who are seen as suitable for a position or promotion, instead of open recruitment for all
- It shows that the problem with differences in outcomes is a very complex problem.
59
How can we make sure that everyone has the same and equal opportunity?
By making sure that discrimination is eliminated from all levels.
60
How do ethnic minorities score on educational qualifications?
Ethnic minorities have on average lower educational qualifications. From some countries half of the people have not finished anything higher than elementary school.
61
What positions do ethnic minorities get?
Research shows that even if they have the same level of education, the kind of job minorities can get is still lower than the job that the majority Dutch can get.
62
What kind of experiments can be done to research discrimination?
Situation tests (done by Bovenkerk in NL)
The beauty of situation tests is that they exclude many variables: differences in education and training, work experience, language etc.
63
The Goldberg paradigm
A situation test.
They use research pairs (one is Dutch, the other is a member of a minority group.
They are given preprogrammed characteristics and qualifications, and thus differ on nothing except their ethnic backgrounds.
He derived Net-discrimination index = how many more times ethnic minority applicants are rejected
64
What are the results of the Goldberg paradigm?
More discrimination was found:
- When applying for lower positions
- When applicants male (minority men)
- When more applicants = people start relying on heuristics
Less discrimination was found:
- At affirmative action organizations; in companies that implement affirmative action policies
o Affirmative action policies are not only about giving opportunities to those who are marginalized, it also boosts the motivation of the companies to search for minority groups.
65
Situation tests internships (Goldberg paradigm)
Moroccan and majority Dutch MBO students phoned 336 companies in building trade (for boys) and commerce and catering industries (for girls) looking for internships.
Used fictitious person-profiles (equalized) = control for differences in education, training, language, etc. => characteristics are pre-programmed.
Recorded:
- Percentage invited for first meeting (White/Majority Dutch 40%, Moroccan 28%; highest in building trade).
- Atmosphere in first meeting (Moroccan boys found it more negative in companies in building trade).
66
What other research can be done to research discrimination?
Interviews
Surveys, testimonials
Specific cases of discrimination
Experiments studying processes (e.g., self-fulfilling prophecies, non-verbal behaviour)
- Situation tests only provide a picture of the extent of discrimination, but they do not uncover the process by which discrimination occurs
67
What measurements can we take against discrimination?
- Make criteria explicit
- Identify and improve procedures used
- Recording representation progress
o You have to make it sustainable
- Diversity training
o You have to keep giving diversity training that is updated
68
How can you make criteria explicit/improve procedures?
- Identify aspects disadvantageous to stigmatized groups
- Reduce use of subjective interviews
- Use behavioral codes (guidelines on what to say, what to do).
- Use equal opportunity/affirmative action.
69
A job that does not require people to travel around the world, but might need traveling in the future (not yet sure when), has traveling in the job description. Is there something wrong with this?
Yes, it can exclude or discourage people even though it is not yet sure if it will happen in the future and if so when.
It might exclude or discourage disabled people or women, because they are expected to stay with their children
70
Selection instruments for diversity (Abell)
Selection-instruments must be efficient, effective and valid.
Goal: best use of full (multicultural) potential.
Use of standardized application forms to reduce bias and increase comparability.
If there is no need to record gender or ethnicity, don’t, it might trigger biases.
71
What are the issues with existing selection instruments (Abell)?
- Low predictive validity
- Lower selection ratio in minority groups
72
Addressing criteria and procedures: guidelines for employers
May not differentiate against groups unless they have good reason to do so (‘objective justification’).
May under certain circumstances give stigmatized groups preference.
- E.g., you have a quota you need to fulfill in order to give them more opportunities, sometimes this is justified
Committee for Equal Treatment monitors observance of laws.
- You need to have diversity inclusion officers organizations
73
Addressing criteria and procedures: advertisements
Advertisements
- May only include requirements necessary for the position
- May not differentiate among groups
74
Example checklist: advertisements with regard to age
1. Does the advertisement refer to age?
2. Does the advertisement name career or life phases? (e.g., “starter”)
3. Does the advertisement ask for work experience? (especially upper limit is a problem)
4. Does the advertisement use specific language or images?
o Information on organizational culture it not an issue (e.g., “young company”)
o Qualities/skills of candidate are not an issue (e.g., “enthusiastic, quick learner, open minded”)
75
Addressing criteria and procedures: equal treatment in selection
- Record procedures recruitment and selection on paper.
- Selection criteria should be determined in advance.
- Preferential selection announced in advance.
- Interview:
o Only questions that are relevant for the position
o No questions about private life
- Application form is better than application letter
- Entry test is better than diploma (as long as skills-related stereotypes are not activated => stereotype threat)
- Create broad recruitment networks
- Avoid stereotyping in criteria (applied for all)
76
When and how does discrimination tend to occur?
- Factors that may appear to be discrimination that are not
- Factors that may appear to be legitimate but that contain discrimination
