lesson 11

Question 1

Hull’s Drive Theory

Answer 1

Core idea: Behavior = Drive × Habit

Drive = internal motivation caused by biological need (e.g., hunger).

Habit = learned behavior (formed through reinforcement).

More drive → stronger behavior (if habit is strong).

Criticism: Doesn’t explain behaviors without biological needs (e.g., curiosity).

Question 2

Incentive Motivation

Answer 2

Incentives: External stimuli that attract or repel behavior (e.g., food, money).

Modifies Hull’s theory → Behavior = Drive × Habit × Incentive

Explains goal-directed behavior.

High incentive can increase behavior even with low drive.

Example: You eat dessert even when full because it’s rewarding.

Question 3

Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer (PIT)

Answer 3

Interaction between Pavlovian conditioning (CS → US) and instrumental conditioning (action → outcome).

General PIT: A CS associated with reward energizes instrumental behaviors broadly (not specific).

Specific PIT: A CS enhances behaviors leading to the same reward.

Example: If tone = food and lever press = food, tone → more lever pressing.

Question 4

Paradoxical Reward Effects

Answer 4

Overjustification effect: External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation.

Example: Kids drawing for fun stop enjoying it if paid.

Negative contrast: Behavior decreases if reward is reduced.

Example: 1 pellet → 5 pellets → back to 1 → less motivation than original 1.

Question 5

Early thinking about motivation linked it to what?

Answer 5

Biological need.

Question 6

What did Hull emphasize as a form of motivation caused by need?

Answer 6

Drive.

Question 7

According to Hull, what three things did Drive supposedly energize?

Answer 7

Consummatory behavior, random (“general”) activity, and instrumental action.

Question 8

What was one of the major problems with the Drive concept regarding the type of activity it energizes?

Answer 8

Drive does not energize activity in a random or general way; instead, hunger and thirst seem to select or potentiate behavior systems designed to deal with the motivational state.

Question 9

How does motivational state influence instrumental behavior, according to the text?

Answer 9

Only if the animal has had a chance to learn the reinforcer’s value in the presence of the motivational state.

Question 10

What is the process called where motivational states influence instrumental behavior only after learning the reinforcer’s value in that state?

Answer 10

: Incentive learning.

Question 11

How do eating and drinking seem to relate to need, according to the text?

Answer 11

They seem to anticipate—rather than be a response to—need.

Question 12

What strongly influences what we eat and when we eat it?

Answer 12

Learning processes.

Question 13

What is instrumental behavior motivated by?

Answer 13

The anticipation of reward.

Question 14

What do upshifts and downshifts in the size of reward cause?

Answer 14

Positive and negative “contrast effects.”

Question 15

What do contrast effects suggest about the motivating effects of a reward?

Answer 15

They depend on what we have learned to expect.

Question 16

What is caused by the anticipation of reward, which Hull added to his theory?

Answer 16

Incentive motivation.

Question 17

What was the classically conditioned anticipatory goal response that was thought to energize instrumental action in Hull’s revised theory?

Answer 17

r
G
​
.

Question 18

What motivates avoidance learning?

Answer 18

Fear, or r
E
​
.

Question 19

What becomes important when rewards are smaller than expected?

Answer 19

Frustration, r
F
​
.

Question 20

What type of reward (like prizes or money) can sometimes hurt human performance that is said to be intrinsically motivated?

Answer 20

Extrinsic rewards.

Question 21

What is the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE)?

Answer 21

Behaviors that are reinforced only some of the time are more resistant to extinction than those that are always reinforced.

Question 22

What are two potential explanations for why behavior may be more persistent after partial reinforcement?

Answer 22

We have learned to respond in the presence of frustration, OR partial reinforcement may make it more difficult to discriminate extinction from acquisition.

Question 23

What theory refines the idea that partial reinforcement makes it harder to discriminate extinction from acquisition?

Answer 23

sequential theory

Question 24

What did Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) experiments demonstrate?

Answer 24

Presenting a Pavlovian CS while an organism is performing an instrumental action can influence instrumental performance.

Question 25

What are the motivating effects of rewards and punishers thought to be mediated by, according to the text (as opposed to peripheral responses)?

Answer 25

Classically conditioned expectancies or motivational states

Question 26

In any instrumental learning situation, what can cues in the background become associated with and thereby motivate instrumental action?

Answer 26

The outcome (O).

Question 27

What are the two forms of Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT)?

Answer 27

General PIT and outcome-specific PIT.

Question 28

In general PIT, a CS associated with a reinforcer can excite or invigorate an instrumental response reinforced by what?

Answer 28

Any outcome within the same motivational system (e.g., different types of foods).

Question 29

In outcome-specific PIT, a CS excites or invigorates an instrumental response that is specifically associated with what?

Answer 29

The same outcome.

Question 30

What can outcome-specific PIT instigate organisms to do, even when they are satiated?

Answer 30

To make an instrumental response.

Question 31

According to opponent-process theory, what happens when an emotional stimulus is withdrawn after repeated exposure?

Answer 31

An opposite after-reaction occurs, which may also get stronger while the original emotional effect habituates.

Question 32

According to opponent-process theory, why might we eventually seek a positive stimulus that was initially a positive reinforcer?

Answer 32

To escape the strong aversive after-reaction.

Question 33

What might the seeking of a positive stimulus to escape a negative after-reaction be a hallmark of?

Answer 33

Addiction.

Question 34

What does opponent-process theory explain in relation to early life?

Answer 34

The emotional dynamics of imprinting.

Question 35

What type of responses, essentially conditioned opponent processes, may play a role in tolerance and habituation?

Answer 35

Conditioned compensatory responses.

Question 36

What is the role of motivation in relation to knowledge and action, according to the textbook?

Answer 36

Motivation translates knowledge into action.

Question 37

What are the three main components commonly assumed to make up emotions?

Answer 37

Feeling (affect), a physiological response, and a behavioral response.

Question 38

What is the central difficulty in studying motivation and emotion in animals?

Answer 38

We can observe behavior, but the reasons (motivations, feelings) behind it are hidden inside their brains.

Question 39

What is the "judgement bias experiment" designed to expose in animals?

Answer 39

Animal emotions (or 'moods').

Question 40

Briefly describe what Judgment Bias is

Answer 40

Judgment bias is a paradigm where animals are trained to associate different cues with reward or no reward. Then, when presented with ambiguous cues, their response is measured. A "pessimistic" bias (resulting from negative experiences) is shown by a reduced expectation of reward for these ambiguous cues, while an "optimistic" bias (from positive experiences) shows an increased expectation.

Question 41

How can judgment bias experiments be used to expose animal emotions?

Answer 41

By manipulating the animal's recent experiences (e.g., inducing a negative or positive state) and then observing how this affects their responses to ambiguous cues. Changes in their expectations of reward (pessimism or optimism) are interpreted as reflecting their underlying emotional state or 'mood

Question 42

What is the "law of effect"?

Answer 42

If an action is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated.

Question 43

What phenomenon demonstrates that learning can occur in the absence of reward?

Answer 43

Latent learning.

Question 44

According to Hull's theory of Drive, what two elements work together to produce behavior?

Answer 44

Drive (motivation based on need) and learning.

Question 45

How do reinforcers relate to drive in Hull's theory?

Answer 45

Reinforcers lead to reductions in need and therefore to reductions in drive.

Question 46

What is "incentive learning"?

Answer 46

The process by which animals (and humans) need to learn that a specific reinforcer reduces a specific drive.

Question 47

What did the results of Balleine's (1992) experiment (where rats were trained and tested on lever pressing under different hunger states) demonstrate the importance of?

Answer 47

Incentive learning – the need to learn the relationship between an action, a reinforcer, and the reduction of a specific drive for the motivation to perform the action to be present.

Question 48

Give an example from the text of how motivation is not always directly tied to reinforcement in terms of timing.

Answer 48

Animals will often seek out things they need before they actually need them, anticipating future needs (e.g., foraging for food even when not currently hungry).

Question 49

How can Pavlovian conditioning contribute to motivation even in the absence of a strong drive?

Answer 49

Cues in the world that are associated with reward (CSs) can come to exert control over behavior, motivating seeking even if the organism is not currently in a state of need.

Question 50

What do negative contrast experiments demonstrate about motivation?

Answer 50

Animals are less likely to perform an operant for a reward if the size of that reward has recently been decreased, showing that motivation depends on the history or context of reinforcement.

Question 51

What did Brosnan and de Waal's (2003) experiment with capuchin monkeys suggest about motivation?

Answer 51

Motivation to act can depend not only on the reward received but also on what rewards others are receiving, potentially indicating a sense of "fairness" or relative reward value.

Question 52

In the expanded theory of motivation by Hull and Spence, what third term was added to drive and habit?

Answer 52

Incentive (a motivation resulting from past reinforcement, separate from drive).

Question 53

Jimmy likes to eat chocolate. Can you identify in the following scenarios whether he will actually end up consuming chocolate, and why he might not (is he lacking drive or information)? 1. Jimmy is at home and has just consumed a gallon tub of chocolate ice-cream. He knows there is more in the freezer. What will happen?

Answer 53

Jimmy will not consume chocolate. He has the information, but no drive.

Question 54

Jimmy is at a hotel in a strange city. He has found a small chocolate on his pillow, which he consumed, but has no idea where else the hotel elves may have hidden chocolate. What will happen?

Answer 54

Jimmy will not consume chocolate. He has the drive, but no information.

Question 55

immy is at a candy store. He is hungry. What will happen?

Answer 55

Jimmy will consume lots of chocolate. He has drive and is surrounded by candy.

Question 56

Jimmy is on a friend’s yacht and is eating a large chocolate cake. As soon as he is done, the yacht hits a reef and sinks, and Jimmy is shipwrecked on a desert island. What will happen?

Answer 56

Jimmy will not consume chocolate (or anything else, probably). He has neither drive (since he just ate an entire chocolate cake) nor information (he doesn’t know where there might be chocolate on the island).

Question 57

Jimmy is still stuck on the desert island from the last example. It is night-time and he is cold. However, having led a very sheltered life thus far, he has never experienced being cold before and doesn’t know what to do about it. Question 1 of 2: Jimmy's problem is A lack of drive (to get warm) A lack of information A lack of central heating A lack of imagination

Answer 57

lack of information

Question 58

While walking along the beach, Jimmy comes across a burning tree branch (possibly hit by lightning). Approaching the branch makes him feel warm, which is pleasant. However, the branch fire soon dies down. What will happen now? Jimmy will go back to being cold and miserable Jimmy will pray to the branch, in the hopes that the fire god will come back Jimmy will make his own fire using other branches, since he has now learned that fire warms you up Jimmy will invent an entirely different way of keeping warm

Answer 58

Jimmy will make his own fire using other branches, since he has now learned that fire warms you up

Question 59

According to the reflection point, what type of learning might you initially assume is most related to the effects of motivation?

Answer 59

Operant conditioning, because motivation seems tied to action (responses that are emitted before reward).

Question 60

Why might responses to CSs in Pavlovian conditioning be seen as less directly tied to motivation than operants?

Answer 60

Why might responses to CSs in Pavlovian conditioning be seen as less directly tied to motivation than operants?

Question 61

According to the text, do the effects of motivation appear to be limited to either operant or Pavlovian conditioning?

Answer 61

No, the effects of motivation appear to transcend this distinction, with both processes being involved and often mixed.

Question 62

What is the central idea of the r G ​ -s G ​ mechanism proposed by Hull, Spence, and Amsel?

Answer 62

: Animals' responses to CSs (CRs) can be detected by the animal and used as stimuli to condition and motivate further action.

Question 63

In the example of Jimmy's new job, what does R G ​ represent?

Answer 63

The warm fuzzy feeling Jimmy gets at all the initial rewards at his new job (Response to the Goal).

Question 64

In the same example, what does r G ​ represent?

Answer 64

The slightly weaker feeling of well-being Jimmy starts to feel as soon as he approaches the building, which has become associated with the good things inside (weaker Response to the Goal, a CR).

Question 65

What type of conditioning is involved in Jimmy's feeling of well-being (r G ​ ) upon approaching the building?

Answer 65

Pavlovian conditioning (the building, initially neutral, becomes a CS associated with the US of rewards).

Question 66

How does r G ​ become s G ​ in the r G ​ -s G ​ mechanism?

Answer 66

Jimmy can detect his own internal feeling (r G ​ ), which means it can function as a stimulus (s G ​ ) – an internal cue.

Question 67

What role does s G ​ play in motivating Jimmy's behavior of going to work?

Answer 67

It acts as an occasion setter, informing him that his actions (going into the building) will lead to good things, thus providing an incentive (in the Hullian sense).

Question 68

What happens when Jimmy experiences a decrease in reward at work (e.g., ping-pong tables gone, only peanuts)? What is this an example of?

Answer 68

He experiences frustration (r F ​ ), and this is an example of a negative contrast.

Question 69

Similar to r G ​ , what can r F ​ itself become and how can it motivate behavior?

Answer 69

r F ​ can become a stimulus that motivates further actions, such as Jimmy preferring to stay home.

Question 70

What is the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE)?

Answer 70

The finding that behaviors that are reinforced only some of the time are more resistant to extinction than those that are always reinforced.1  

Question 71

: In the pigeon example of PREE, which bird (A - continuous reinforcement, or B - partial reinforcement) continues to peck longer during extinction?

Answer 71

Bird B (the one that was partially reinforced).

Question 72

How does a prediction lens help explain PREE?

Answer 72

Bird B is used to rewards being unreliable, so it takes longer to "predict" that rewards have stopped altogether compared to Bird A, who is used to consistent reinforcement.

Question 73

ccording to the text, why doesn't the Rescorla-Wagner (RW) model accurately explain PREE?

Answer 73

RW predicts that the partially reinforced bird (B) will have a weaker associative strength and thus extinguish faster, which is the opposite of what is observed. RW doesn't account for the resistance to extinction from prior experiences of non-reward.

Question 74

How can the idea of frustration (r F ​ ) help explain PREE?

Answer 74

During partial reinforcement, the frustration from unrewarded trials can become a conditioned stimulus associated with subsequent reward, leading to continued responding during extinction.

Question 75

What is the main insight of the r G ​ -s G ​ theory regarding Pavlovian and operant learning?

Answer 75

A Pavlovian conditioned response (CR) can become an internal stimulus that motivates an operant action.

Question 76

What can both Pavlovian and operant processes (often together) lead to in terms of action, according to the conclusion?

Answer 76

: A learned incentive for action.

Question 77

: Can emotions motivate actions? Can these emotional responses be modified by learning?

Answer 77

Yes, emotions can motivate actions, and these responses can also be modified by learning.

Question 78

Take a moment to jot down the main insight of the rG-sG theory; what is the mechanism that this theory suggests is responsible for Pavlovian processes leading to operant responding?

Answer 78

The rG-sG theory is based on the idea that a CR can become a stimulus that motivates an operant action. The animal can detect its internal response (the CR) and use that as an occasion setter to decide which actions to pursue.

Question 79

At some point, the only toys left in the machine are actually too heavy to be lifted by the claw, so you can never win. Once this happens, according to the PREE, Jimmy will keep playing longer than Jane, despite never winning Jane will keep playing longer than Jimmy, despite never winning Both Jimmy and Jane will keep playing for the same length of time What’s a PREE?

Answer 79

Jimmy will keep playing longer than Jane, despite never winning

Question 80

The rG-sG mechanism can explain the effect in the previous question by saying that Jane feels frustrated before each trial, and that motivates her to keep trying Jimmy feels frustrated before each trial, and this motivates him to keep trying Jane feels frustrated before each trial, and this prevents her from wanting to try Jimmy feels frustrated before each trial, and this prevents him from wanting to try

Answer 80

Jimmy feels frustrated before each trial, and this motivates him to keep trying

Question 81

The difference between the first stage of this ‘experiment’ – when both players were getting toys at least some of the time – and the second stage – where nobody gets anything – could be called Judgement bias A positive contrast A negative contrast Affect

Answer 81

A negative contrast

Question 82

After they are done playing the claw game, Jane has way more toys than Jimmy and has had way more fun (being better than someone at something is always fun). Both of them are then asked what they thought about the movie they watched earlier. Though they both rated it 5 / 10 earlier, Jane now rates the movie a 7 / 10 and Jimmy a 3 / 10. This effect is due to Positive contrast Judgment bias PIT Opponent-processes

Answer 82

Judgment bias