lesson 6

Question 1

performance rule

Answer 1

The mechanism by which learned associations are translated into observable behavior (e.g., how associative strength relates to the strength of a conditioned response).

Question 2

Common Research Subject for Learning and Behavior

Answer 2

Pigeons, due to their ability to perform many trials for food rewards in operant boxes.

Question 3

Underlying Function of Learning (Prediction Lens)

Answer 3

Purpose: To help animals predict and prepare for important upcoming events in their environment.

Question 4

Memory

Answer 4

Definition: The process by which learned associations are stored in the brain.

Question 5

Types of Memory Discussed

Answer 5

Answer: Short-term (working) memory and long-term (reference) memory. This lesson primarily focuses on long-term memory.

Question 6

Retention Interval

Answer 6

Definition: The period of time between the learning phase and the memory test.

Question 7

Long-Term Memory Capacity (Pigeons & Humans)

Answer 7

Observation: Both pigeons and humans can store a surprisingly large amount of information in their long-term memory, especially for salient or important events.

Question 8

erm: Three Main Ways We Forget Things

Answer 8

Failure to encode into long-term memory.
Trace decay (fading of the memory trace).
Retrieval failure (inability to access the memory).

Question 9

Retrieval Failure

Answer 9

The memory is stored in long-term memory but cannot be accessed at the appropriate time to influence behavior.

Question 10

Memory Reactivation

Answer 10

Providing a reminder (retrieval cue) can significantly improve performance on a memory test, indicating that the memory was present but not being retrieved

Question 11

Retrieval Cue

Answer 11

A stimulus that helps in accessing information stored in long-term memory.

Question 12

Context-Dependent Memory

Answer 12

Retrieval of a memory is often better when the context at the time of retrieval is similar to the context at the time of encoding (learning). A change in context can lead to a generalization decrement in memory performance.

Question 13

Interference (in Memory)

Answer 13

When other memories hinder the retrieval of a specific memory from long-term memory.

Question 14

: Proactive Interference

Answer 14

Earlier memories interfere with the recall of later memories.

Question 15

Retroactive Interference

Answer 15

Newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories.

Question 16

Directed Forgetting

Answer 16

The phenomenon where being instructed to forget information leads to poorer memory for that information later. Demonstrated in short-term memory tasks with pigeons.

Question 17

Matching to Sample (MTS) Task

Answer 17

An operant task where the subject is presented with a sample stimulus, followed by a choice between the sample and a novel stimulus. Correct responses (matching the sample) are rewarded. Used in the directed forgetting experiment.

Question 18

‘Remember’ Cue (Directed Forgetting)

Answer 18

A signal indicating that a memory test for the preceding stimulus will occur

Question 19

‘Forget’ Cue (Directed Forgetting)

Answer 19

A signal indicating that no memory test for the preceding stimulus will occur, and a different task will follow.

Question 20

Probe Trials (Directed Forgetting)

Answer 20

Trials where the ‘forget’ cue is given, but the memory for the preceding stimulus is tested anyway, revealing the directed forgetting effect.

Question 21

Long-Term Directed Forgetting in Humans

Answer 21

Current Understanding: There is limited evidence for a long-term memory directed forgetting effect in humans. The effect seems more prominent in short-term memory.

Question 22

Jimmy is not great at remembering people. On Monday, he is in class and another student sits next to him and says hi. Jimmy cannot remember her name. The student tells him that he knows her brother, John. This immediately reminds Jimmy that her name is Jenny. This is an example of?

Answer 22

This is an example of memory reactivation

Question 23

Jimmy is walking down the street and a stranger says hi to him. He doesn’t remember him until the stranger tells him that they usually have class together and meet there. Jimmy then remembers that the stranger’s name is Jake. Jimmy forgot because of?

Answer 23

Jimmy forgot because of the change in context (from class to on the street).

Question 24

Jimmy dates a lot, because you’re only young once. On Monday, he runs into an old girlfriend and accidentally calls her by his current girlfriend’s name. On Tuesday, while with his current girlfriend, he accidentally calls her by a former girlfriend’s name (thereby ending that relationship). Which kind of interference is Jimmy displaying on each day?

Answer 24

On Monday, Jimmy is displaying retroactive interference: the memory of his current girlfriend interferes with the older memory of the former girlfriend’s name; on Tuesday, he is displaying proactive interference: the memory of the former girlfriend is preventing retrieval of the newer memory for his current girlfriend’s name.

Question 25

Extinction (as more than unlearning)

Answer 25

Not simply the forgetting or unlearning of the original association, but rather the learning of a new association that inhibits or suppresses the original one.

Question 26

Spontaneous Recovery (in Extinction)

Answer 26

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of time has passed since the last extinction trial, suggesting the original association was not fully lost.

Question 27

Renewal (in Extinction)

Answer 27

The recovery of an extinguished CR when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented in a context different from the one where extinction occurred, indicating that extinction learning can be context-specific.

Question 28

Reinstatement (in Extinction)

Answer 28

The recovery of an extinguished CR after an unexpected presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US), even if the CS was not present during the US presentation, suggesting the US can reactivate the original association.

Question 29

Inhibitory Association in Extinction

Answer 29

During extinction, an animal learns a new association (CS → no US) that inhibits the expression of the original excitatory association (CS → US).

Question 30

Occasion Setter

Answer 30

: A contextual cue that signals whether a particular CS-US contingency is currently in effect. It indicates the "occasion" or situation in which a CS will be followed by a US (or not).

Question 31

Feature Positive Paradigm

Answer 31

Training: A → nothing A + X → US Function of X: The "feature" that signals the presence of the US when paired with the target (A).

Question 32

Feature Negative Paradigm

Answer 32

Training: A → US A + X → nothing Function of X: The "feature" that signals the absence of the US when paired with the target (A).

Question 33

How RW Explains Occasion Setting (and its limitations)

Answer 33

RW Explanation: Assumes the feature (X) develops a direct association with the US (excitatory in feature positive, inhibitory in feature negative). Limitations: Contradicted by: Timing effects (X-A-US vs. AX-US). Lack of impact of directly conditioning X with the US on the AX compound. Failure of occasion setters to act like regular inhibitors/exciters in summation tests.

Question 34

Timing Dependence of Occasion Setting

Answer 34

Observation: If the occasion setter (X) precedes the target (A) and then the US, X seems to predict A (which predicts the US) rather than directly predicting the US. Presenting X alone does not elicit a CR.

Question 35

Irrelevance of Direct Feature-US Conditioning

Answer 35

Observation: Directly pairing the feature (X) with the US in a separate phase does not alter its function as an occasion setter in the AX compound. If X were a regular CS, this direct conditioning should affect the response to AX.

Question 36

Occasion Setters vs. Conditioned Inhibitors/Exciters (Summation Test)

Answer 36

Observation: Pairing an occasion setter with a new CS does not produce the expected summation or retardation effects seen with regular conditioned inhibitors or exciters, suggesting a different underlying learning mechanism.

Question 37

Jimmy is at a concert, in the mosh pit (you’re only young once, remember). Someone accidentally bumps into him and Jimmy immediately pushes the person back. The following day, Jimmy is at a restaurant and the same person accidentally bumps into him. Jimmy backs away and they both apologize to each other. Why did Jimmy’s reaction to the same stimulus (being bumped) differ between the two contexts? Can you identify the various CSs, occasion setters, and CRs in these scenarios?

Answer 37

Jimmy’s reaction to the stimulus is being controlled by the context, which tells him what kind of situation he is in, and what the appropriate responses are in that context. The context (mosh pit or restaurant) serves as an occasion setter. The bump is the CS (and the US), and pushing back or apologizing are Jimmy’s two different CRs.

Question 38

Try entering the feature positive and feature negative experiments into the RW simulator (remember that, to have alternating trial types in the same phase, just enter both trial types using the same group name and phase number). RW actually does a good job of predicting the effects though, as we shall see, for the wrong reasons. Note any differences between the two paradigms. Though they are conceptually opposites of each other, the associative strengths work differently in the two cases. See if you can figure out why.

Answer 38

There is actually a built-in example in the website that you can load that will show both feature positive and negative experiments (but you should try to do it yourself, to make sure you understand how). There is a key difference between feature positive and feature negative experiments. In the former, there is no cue that is always associated with the absence of the US. X is always followed by a US, and A is followed by a US half the time. This means that A will end up with a V of 0, and X will have V = λ (if you run it long enough). In a feature negative experiment, on the other hand, X is always associated with nothing, which means that it will become a conditioned inhibitor (this is actually the same layout as we used to create conditioned inhibitors in earlier lessons). For this reason, animals are generally faster at learning feature positive than feature negative, which RW correctly predicts.

Question 39

Compensatory Responses

Answer 39

Conditioned responses (CRs) that are the opposite of the unconditioned response (UR), as if the body is trying to counteract the effects of the US. Often seen with drug USs.

Question 40

First Approach to Compensatory Responses

Answer 40

The CR is opposite to the UR because it is a learned attempt to counteract the physiological effects of the US, preparing the body for the expected disruption. (e.g., increased body temperature as a CR to alcohol to offset the alcohol-induced decrease).

Question 41

Second Approach to Compensatory Responses

Answer 41

: The CR is not opposite to the true UR. This approach suggests that the US is the detection of the drug, and the UR is the body's initial (often non-cognitive) response to it (e.g., decreased sensitivity to heroin). The CR is then the same as this UR (a further decrease in sensitivity).

Question 42

Importance of Context in Drug Overdoses

Answer 42

Compensatory CRs to drugs are often triggered by familiar context cues. In a novel context, these CRs may not occur, leaving the body unprepared to counteract the drug's effects, increasing the risk of overdose.

Question 43

"Prediction Lens" for Understanding Responses

Answer 43

Examining learned responses from a functional perspective: what is the purpose of this response? How does it help the animal prepare for or predict upcoming events?

Question 44

Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation

Answer 44

Memories need to be consolidated to become stable in long-term memory. Reactivating a stable memory can make it unstable again, requiring reconsolidation, which can be disrupted.

Question 45

Relationship Between CR and UR

Answer 45

Complexity: The CR is not always the same as the UR. Sometimes they can be opposite (compensatory responses), and the nature of the CS also influences the form of the CR.

Question 46

True Unconditioned Responses (URs)

Answer 46

nature: Must be generated by the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord). Peripheral physiological effects of a US (like a drug) might trigger compensatory reactions from the nervous system, which then become the basis for the CR.

Question 47

Behavior Systems Theory

Answer 47

Concept: Conditioning can activate whole "behavior systems" organized around the US, leading to a rich and variable array of conditioned behaviors. Different CS types and CS-US intervals can elicit different components of this system.

Question 48

igure 6.3 shows the same two shapes from figure 6.1. Without checking, can you remember which was the ‘correct’ one? Try to note down all the possible reasons why you might not remember (we covered at least 4). Answer

Answer 48

Answer: There are 4 possible reasons (based on the material we covered this lesson) you might not be able to remember which shape was correct: Possibly, you had heard of the different kinds of memory before, and so this material was not new to you; you were not surprised by it. This might have led to the information never making it into your long-term memory. Alternatively, you might have been reading fast and not paying very much attention to what you were reading, which might also have prevented the information from entering long-term memory (this is what some of the attention-based models might predict). This might be a reason for concern: if you didn’t remember this, how much of the rest of the material didn’t get retained either? It is possible that you did encode which shape was correct into long-term memory, but for some reason you cannot retrieve that memory right now. There are several possible reasons for retrieval failure: maybe too much time has passed, or you are in a very different context now than you were when studying the material. Possibly, when you read this material, you thought I was just trying to give a cute example of how memory processes work (which is true). You might have assumed that you did not need to retain the information on which shape is correct, and so you forgot it. This would be considered an example of directed forgetting.