lesson 3 Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
What is the main function of learning according to this lesson?
A
Prediction — learning helps animals predict important events to better prepare for them.
2
Q
Why is prediction so central to learning?
A
Because if animals can predict what’s about to happen, they can adapt and prepare, improving survival.
3
Q
Why do we use a shared terminology in learning research?
A
To consistently describe experiments and findings across various contexts, much like how math is universally applicable.
4
Q
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?
A
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food, shock).
5
Q
What is an Unconditioned Response (UR)?
A
The natural, innate response to a US (e.g., salivation to food, freezing to shock).
6
Q
Can an Unconditioned Response (UR) be changed?
A
Yes, it can be modified through processes like habituation
7
Q
What is a Neutral Stimulus (NS)?
A
A stimulus that initially does not elicit any innate response (e.g., a bell).
8
Q
What happens when a Neutral Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with a US?
A
It becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that elicits a Conditioned Response (CR).
9
Q
What is a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?
A
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with a US, elicits a learned response.
10
Q
What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?
A
A learned response to a CS that occurs after conditioning.
11
Q
Define Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning using terminology.
A
It’s the process by which an NS becomes a CS by being paired with a US, eventually eliciting a CR.
12
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the NS before training?
A
The ringing of the bell.
13
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the CS after training?
A
The ringing of the bell, once it started to cause salivation on its own.
14
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the US?
A
The food.
15
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the UR?
A
Salivation when presented with food.
16
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the CR?
A
Salivation when hearing the bell (after conditioning).
17
Q
What are the three stages required to demonstrate learning?
A
Before, during, and after the conditioning experience.
18
Q
What type of control was used in Pavlov’s experiment?
A
A truly-random control where the bell and food were presented randomly, so the bell did not predict food.
19
Q
What is typically the difference in strength between the UR and the CR?
A
The CR is usually weaker than the UR.
20
Q
What does “contingency” refer to in classical conditioning?
A
The probability that the unconditioned stimulus (US) will happen given that the conditioned stimulus (CS) has just happened.
21
Q
What does a positive contingency between CS and US mean?
A
The CS predicts the presence or arrival of the US.
22
Q
What does a negative contingency between CS and US mean?
A
The CS predicts the absence of the US.
23
Q
Can contingency exist if the US is either appetitive or aversive?
A
Yes, the type of contingency is independent of the nature of the US.
24
Q
What is an excitatory CS or CS+?
A
A CS that predicts the arrival of a US, whether appetitive or aversive.
25
What is an inhibitory CS or CS-?
A CS that predicts the absence of a US.
26
In Jimmy’s example, if the US is school (which he dislikes), what type of US is it?
Aversive.
27
In Jimmy’s example, what is the contingency between the news report (CS) and school (US)?
Negative contingency—the CS predicts the absence of the aversive US (school).
28
What happens in fear conditioning?
A CS (like a tone) predicts an aversive US (shock), leading to a CR (like freezing). This is excitatory learning.
29
What makes a CS a useful predictor of the US?
It reduces uncertainty about whether the US will happen.
30
What happens if a US sometimes occurs without the CS, or the CS doesn’t always predict the US?
The contingency is weaker, and learning is less effective because the CS is a less reliable predictor.
31
Example of a CS- with an appetitive US?
A "closed" sign at a coffee shop (CS) predicts no coffee (appetitive US); it inhibits the behavior of going in.
32
Example of a CS- with an aversive US?
A boss’s smile (CS) predicts the absence of being fired (aversive US); it reduces anxiety.
33
How is prediction in learning different from everyday use?
In learning, prediction is about reducing uncertainty, not just being accurate.
34
What determines the strength of learning in associative conditioning?
How well the CS reduces uncertainty about the US—i.e., the strength of the contingency.
35
What is contingency in classical conditioning?
Contingency is the probability that the unconditioned stimulus (US) occurs given that the conditioned stimulus (CS) has just occurred.
36
What is a positive contingency?
When the US is more likely to occur after the CS than without it, leading to excitatory conditioning.
37
What is a negative contingency?
When the US is less likely to occur after the CS than without it, leading to inhibitory conditioning.
38
Are the probabilities of the US after CS and US without CS dependent on each other?
No, they are independent. You can manipulate either without changing the other.
39
How does contingency relate to uncertainty reduction?
A CS is useful if it reduces uncertainty about the arrival of the US — i.e., it predicts the US better than chance.
40
Do stronger contingencies lead to stronger learning?
Yes. Stronger positive or negative contingencies lead to faster and more effective learning.
41
What’s an example of classical conditioning in advertising?
An ad pairs a burger (CS) with an attractive woman (US), causing the viewer to associate positive feelings (CR) with the burger.
42
In the burger ad example, is the UR the same as the CR?
No. The UR is arousal, but the CR is wanting to buy the burger. The CR is not always a weaker form of the UR.
43
What general rule applies to CRs in classical conditioning?
Appetitive USs lead to approach CRs; aversive USs lead to avoidance CRs.
44
What are the different CS-US arrangements in excitatory conditioning?
1) Delay conditioning (CS starts before US, no gap)
2) Trace conditioning (CS ends before US, short gap)
3) Simultaneous conditioning (CS and US start together)
4) Backward conditioning (US comes before CS)
45
Which CS-US arrangement leads to the strongest learning?
Delay and trace conditioning.
46
What is “inhibition of delay”?
When an animal learns not to respond immediately to the CS but delays its response to match the timing of the US.
47
How is inhibitory learning different from excitatory learning?
Inhibition fades faster, is not simply forgetting, and involves suppressing responses rather than unlearning them.
48
What is conditioned suppression?
method to study inhibitory learning by training an animal to do a behavior (like pressing a lever) and then observing reduced behavior when the CS is introduced.
49
Why is it difficult to study inhibition?
Because not doing something doesn’t always mean inhibition — you need a situation where the behavior should happen to test if it's being suppressed.
50
What does a suppression ratio larger than 0.5 (e.g., 0.8) suggest?
It suggests that the rats are pressing the bar more during the CS than during the pre-CS period, meaning the CS is enhancing the response rather than suppressing it. This typically indicates an error in the experiment or potentially masochistic rats.
51
What does it mean if a CS has a suppression ratio of 1?
A suppression ratio of 1 means the rats only press the bar during the CS and are frozen during the pre-CS period, suggesting the CS is highly engaging and suppresses all other responses.
52
What is a conditioned inhibitor?
A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of a reward or prevents a CS from eliciting its typical response, such as a light that inhibits the effect of a bell predicting food.
53
: What happens when a conditioned inhibitor (CS-) is presented with a CS+ (exciting stimulus)?
The conditioned inhibitor (CS-) will reduce or inhibit the response to the CS+, as shown in a summation test.
54
What is the summation test used for?
The summation test is used to test whether a stimulus has become a conditioned inhibitor by presenting it alongside a CS+ (excitor) and checking if the response is reduced compared to when the CS+ is presented alone.
55
What is the retardation test used for?
The retardation test is used to test conditioned inhibitors by presenting the stimulus again with a reward (US) and observing whether learning is slowed, which would indicate that the stimulus is inhibiting learning.
56
In the retardation test, what would indicate a conditioned inhibitor?
If it is difficult for the subject to unlearn the inhibitory association and learn that the stimulus now predicts food (a reward), this suggests the stimulus is a conditioned inhibitor.
57
What is the difference between S-R learning and S-S learning?
S-R (Stimulus-Response) learning suggests an association between a stimulus and a response (the CS causes a direct reaction like the UR), while S-S (Stimulus-Stimulus) learning suggests an association between the CS and the US (the CS triggers the representation of the US, influencing behavior indirectly).
58
What evidence supports S-S learning over S-R learning?
In an experiment where rats were exposed to a loud noise (US) and a light (CS), the rats showed reduced freezing (a learned response) when the light was presented after the US had been habituated, suggesting they had formed an association between the CS and the US, not just a direct response to the CS.
59
In the Packard and McGaugh (1996) experiment, what determined whether rats used a place rule or response rule in a maze?
Rats with less training used the place rule (S-S learning), relying on cues in the environment. Rats with more training used the response rule (S-R learning), performing a fixed response (like always turning right).
60
How did deactivating certain brain areas affect the rats' maze behavior in Packard and McGaugh's experiment?
Deactivating certain brain areas made the rats return to using the place rule (S-S learning) even after extensive training, suggesting that the place rule and response rule are governed by different brain areas.
61
Jimmy has learned that pressing a specific button on the vending machine gets him a candy bar. When approaching the machine, however, Jimmy only presses that button if he is in the mood for a candy bar. This is evidence for
A reflex
S-S learning
S-R learning
Classic conditioning
S-S learning
62
Jimmy has a habit of biting his nails whenever he is tense. His mother, whenever she sees him doing it, bats his hand away from his face, and Jimmy realizes that he should not damage his nails. However, the next time he is tense, he starts biting his nails again. This is evidence of
A neurosis
S-S learning
S-R learning
Tasty nail syndrome
S-R learning
63
What is the procedure for second-order conditioning?
Training Phase 1: An NS (e.g., bell) is paired with a US (e.g., food) to create a CR (salivation).
Training Phase 2: The previously conditioned CS (bell) is paired with a new NS (e.g., light).
Test: The new NS (light) is tested and produces a CR (salivation), even though it was never directly paired with the US.
64
Sensory Preconditioning
Q: What is the procedure for sensory preconditioning?
Training Phase 1: Two NSs (e.g., bell and light) are paired together without a US.
Training Phase 2: One of the NSs (e.g., bell) is paired with a US (e.g., food), creating a CR (salivation).
Test: The second NS (light) is tested and elicits a weak CR, even though it was never directly paired with the US.
65
What is latent learning?
Latent learning refers to learning that occurs in the absence of a US or reward and does not immediately show up in behavior. For example, rats exploring a maze without food still learn the layout, but this knowledge only becomes apparent when food is introduced later.
66
What is latent inhibition in classical conditioning?
Latent inhibition occurs when an NS is repeatedly presented without a US, making it harder for the subject to learn that the NS predicts the US later. The dog will learn slower when the NS is paired with a US after having experienced it alone.
67
What is overshadowing in classical conditioning?
Overshadowing occurs when two stimuli are presented together during conditioning, and one stimulus (the stronger cue) elicits a stronger CR, overshadowing the response to the weaker stimulus.
Example: If a light and a sound are paired with a US, the light may produce a stronger CR than the sound.
68
What is blocking in classical conditioning?
Blocking occurs when a previously established CS (e.g., light) prevents the conditioning of a new NS (e.g., tone) when they are presented together with a US. The animal does not learn to associate the new NS with the US because the original CS already predicts the US.
69
What is generalization in classical conditioning?
Generalization is when a CR occurs to stimuli similar to the trained CS. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a specific bell pitch may also salivate to other bell pitches, but with a weaker response as the pitch difference increases.
70
What is US revaluation in classical conditioning?
US revaluation occurs when the value of the US changes (e.g., from a normal steak to a larger steak). The CR to the CS changes in response to the revaluation of the US, even though the CS was never directly paired with the new version of the US.
71
What is the table for a sensory preconditioning experiment with the control group?
Group Training 1 Training 2 Test
Experimental A + B A + US B
Control [nothing] A + US B
72
What is the table for an overshadowing experiment with the control group?
Group Training Test
Experimental AB + US B
Control B + US B
73
Jimmy likes watching Netflix. He has learned that after the ''dum-dum' Netflix sound, the next episode of his show will start. Now, he feels happy whenever he hears the Netflix sound. What are the CS, US, and CR in this example?
CS = netflix sound. US = watching an ep of the show. CR = feeling happy
74
While binge-watching Netflix, in order to stay awake, Jimmy allows himself one chocolate-covered coffee bean per episode, every time the Netflix sound plays. However, he cheats, and during half the episodes (on average) allows himself another coffee bean during the episode. Based on what we learned this lesson about contingencies, will Jimmy have excitatory or inhibitory learning about the Netflix sound?
Probability of getting a coffee bean at the Netflix sound = 1 (Jimmy always eats one bean at the sound)
Probability of getting a coffee bean without the sound = 0.5 (he cheats on half the episodes)
Since he is more likely to get a coffee bean when hearing the sound, the sound reduces his uncertainty about the world, and Jimmy will experience excitatory conditioning: the Netflix sound is a good predictor of coffee beans and will become an excitatory CS, a CS+.
75
Jimmy’s show is a drama about a cop and a criminal. In the first season, the cop is always doing good things, and is frequently shown driving his Chevy, because GM (who own Chevrolet) paid for product placement. The criminal drives a Ford (GM paid for that, too). In the second season, the cop turns bad and starts doing bad things. GM asks for him to no longer be shown driving their cars, but people still buy fewer Chevys (if you think that’s not a real effect, check out what “Sex and the City” did to Peloton). Is this effect due to S-R or S-S learning?
This effect is evidence of S-S learning. This is essentially a US revaluation experiment. The good cop (US) was paired with the car (CS), which made people buy the car. Then, the cop was made bad (the US is now aversive). If people had S-R learning, they would still buy the car, because they would have learned: Chevy – Buy (S-R). However, S-S learning suggests that they think of the cop whenever they see the car. In the past, that made them buy it; now, it makes them avoid it.
76
On the next episode of Jimmy’s show, a Ford truck – the same model as that driven by the criminal character, but a different color – is seen with a new character. Viewers immediately dislike this new character, but not as much as they dislike the criminal. There are two effects at play here, what are they?
- First, there is a second-order association here. The Ford was a CS that was associated with the criminal (US). Now, the new character is associated with the Ford, and gains some of the conditioning. There is also a generalization effect, since the car is a different color but some of the conditioning still transfers.
77
What is Pavlov’s basic conditioning experiment used for?
Pavlov’s basic conditioning experiment studies how organisms associate events that occur together in time.
78
What do subjects learn in classical conditioning?
Subjects learn to associate the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) with the Unconditioned Stimulus (US).
79
What is second-order conditioning?
Second-order conditioning is when stimuli that have never been directly associated with a US can still elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an already conditioned stimulus.
80
What is sensory preconditioning?
Sensory preconditioning is when stimuli that have never been paired with a US can elicit a conditioned response after being paired with another conditioned stimulus.
81
What is generalization in classical conditioning?
Generalization occurs when a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
82
What are some examples of methods used in modern research on classical conditioning?
Eyeblink conditioning in rabbits, fear conditioning in rats, autoshaping in pigeons, appetitive conditioning in rats, and taste aversion learning in rats.
83
What factors affect the success of conditioning?
Timing of CS and US (CS should precede the US and be close in time), spacing of conditioning trials, and the novelty and intensity of the CS and US.
84
85
What is the difference between true conditioning and pseudo-conditioning or sensitization?
True conditioning involves a CS eliciting a CR due to association with a US, while pseudo-conditioning or sensitization involves responses that result from exposure to the CS or US without true learning.
86
What is a conditioned excitor?
A conditioned excitor is a CS that predicts the occurrence of a US.
87
What is a conditioned inhibitor?
A conditioned inhibitor is a CS that predicts a decrease in the probability of a US.
88
How can conditioned inhibition be detected?
Conditioned inhibition can be detected through summation and retardation-of-acquisition tests.
89
What are some procedures that produce conditioned inhibition?
Differential inhibition, conditioned inhibition, explicit unpairing (negative correlation), and inhibition of delay.
90
What are latent inhibition and extinction?
Latent inhibition and extinction do not produce conditioned inhibitors as they fail summation tests.
91
What is necessary for learning to occur in classical conditioning?
CS-US pairings are not enough for learning; the CS must provide non-redundant information about the occurrence of the US.
92
93
What is blocking in classical conditioning?
Blocking occurs when prior conditioning to one stimulus prevents the learning of a new stimulus that is paired with the same US
94
What is overshadowing in classical conditioning?
Overshadowing occurs when one stimulus is more salient than another during conditioning, and the more salient stimulus becomes the stronger conditioned stimulus.
95
What is relative validity in classical conditioning?
Relative validity refers to how informative the CS is compared to other cues in predicting the US.
