Human nature
A fundamental view about what human beings are like that for political ideologists informs their view as to the best way to organise society.
Some thinkers explore this by thinking about humanity’s state of nature: what humans were like before organised, civilised societies emerged.
For some, like Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651), this view is negative, with humans considered naturally “poore, nasty and brutish”.
However, liberal thinkers tend to have a more optimistic view, with Locke, for example, viewing human nature as tolerant and guided by reason.
The state
AKA “government”
Refers to the political group (polity) that controls the means of ruling – making and enforcing laws, for example.
The state of nature
What humans were like before organised, civilised societies emerged. Some thinkers, like Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651), considered this state to be negative, with lives, “short, nasty and brutish).
Liberals thinkers, like Locke (Second treatise of Civil Government, 1689) had a more positive view, seeing the SoN as one of perfect freedom, equality, and where no one had the right to subordinate others.
Society
The whole population of a country and how individuals organise and interact with each other.
A CL, like Locke, (or NL, like Friedman) may view society atomistically: a collection of individuals with limited responsibility to each other.
A ML, like Mill, would view society more collectively, recognising the responsibilities that individuals have towards each other.
Social contract
Locke argued (Second treatise of Civil Government, 1689) that no state or government was legitimate unless based on a social contract: - an agreement whereby people willingly give up some of their freedoms to ensure their natural rights (life, liberty, property and happiness) are protected. In this way, he argued that power comes “from below”, in contrast to the dogma of the Divine Right of Kings argued for by the likes of Hobbes.
The Enlightenment
Roughly 1685-1815
Thinkers began to question the traditions of rule and authority that were accepted.
Informed by the scientific method, with many thinking that this approach could conceivably be used to improve all aspects of life.
Also the period where religious explanations in particular were challenged, and can be seen as where modern humanists find their root.
Atomistic
Some Liberals see society as simply a collection of individuals, each seeking to satisfy their own needs and interests.
Can lead to the idea that society does not exist but is just a collection of self-sufficient individuals
Thatcher – “There is no such thing as society”
AKA, ‘possessive individualism’ Macpherson, 1973
Early liberalism sees the individual as, ‘the proprietor of his own person or capacities, owing nothing to society for them’ (Locke).
Gov By Consent
Those arguing for this often promote constitutionalism:
- the limiting of a government’s power by ensuring that arrangements are codified in a single, inviolate document, that lays out specific limits on government power and guaranteed individual rights and freedoms.
Reason
A core similarity between most liberals is that they view humans as rational creatures, normally able to understand and respect the wishes of other individuals. (Also capable of resolving disputes and problems through the medium of logic, discussion and debate - mechanistic theory.)
This view links to the Enlightenment.
Modern lIberalism
JS Mill is often seen as the thinker who moved liberal thought from the Classical to the Modern, arguing that unfettered freedom can have a negative impact on others, and that all individuals deserved the opportunity for self-mastery, flourishing and fulfilment.
ML, then, embraces a positive view of liberty (Berlin, 1958), that recognises that the state has to take a role in removing disadvantage if all individuals are to have the same opportunity.
Licence
Mill said that if liberty is unlimited it can become ‘licence’ (the right to abuse others).
Types of actions - Mill
Mill categorised our actions as either; ‘Self-regarding’ – actions which individuals should have absolute freedom over.
and
‘Other-regarding’ – actions which can restrict the freedom of others or do damage.
Classifications of liberty - Berlin
Isaiah Berlin (1958), categorised liberal thinkers as having one of two approaches to the question of freedom. He classed; Negative theory of liberty; - When freedom is about a person being left alone. - It is negative as it is based upon an absence of external restrictions. - "Freedom from" thinking. Positive Liberty; - Where people have the ability to be autonomous. - Self-Mastery is the freedom to develop skills and talents, to flourish and gain fulfilment. - "Freedom to" thinking.
Night watchman
A view of the role of the state shared by some CL & NL
Believes a government’s only function is to protect the rights of its citizens.
For example, Adam Smith believed that the State’s only role in the economy was to ensure the market could operate freely (laissez-faire economics).
This implies that the State should concern itself with law and order to protect freedoms, but do little beyond this.
Limited Government
This is the idea that any government should have limitations placed upon it.
This is often seen to be best achieved through the use of codified constitutions, that enshrine the rights of citizens and the series of checks and balances that will ensure any government doesn’t encroach on those rights.
The theory of limited government was promoted in around the time of the American Revolution by thinkers like…
Thomas Paine;
who argued for the protection of inalienable rights, And by Montesquieu;
Who argued that the separation of legislative, executive and judicial branches of government was the only way to guarantee freedom.
Invisible hand
Proposed by Adam Smith
Refers to the effectiveness of a free market to deliver what consumers want in the most effective and efficient way through a competitive process of supply and demand.
He proposed that this approach was more effective than government intervention as seen in a mercantilist approach.
Laissez faire
Leave-alone economic theory.
Adam Smith
Aggregate demand
The total amount of demand for goods and services in an economy.
May include any spending, including that by individuals or the State.
The economic explanation of this is more complex (but this is enough for this Alevels lol.)
Multiplier effect
Proposed by John Maynard Keynes
Refers to the idea that any increase in aggregate demand (and so an increase in spending) has a positive knock-on effect on the economy as a whole.
For example, an increase in demand leads to an increase in employment, which in turn adds to an increase in demand (as more people have more jobs and therefore more money to spend).
However, this effect cannot go on indefinitely, as the market cannot always supply enough to meet increasing demand. In this situation, prices go up instead (inflation).
Utilitarian
CL used the ideas of Utilitarianism (Bentham)
Simply;
Where governments should seek the greatest happiness to the greatest number.
Tolerance
A principle that underpins liberalism. Mill (1859) argued:
“if all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he - if he had the power - would be justified in silencing mankind.”
This links with liberalism’s focus on individualism, and the inherent value of each individual.
In modern terms, it has meant an acceptance of cultural diversity.
Social Justice
Addressed by several modern liberal thinkers, including;
John Rawls. In his Theory of Justice (1970) argued that;
1. Society should be structured so that the greatest possible amount of liberty is given to its members, limited only by the notion that the liberty of any one member shall not infringe upon that of any other member.
2. Inequalities–either social or economic–are only to be allowed if the worst off will be better off than they might be under an equal distribution.
3. If there is such a beneficial inequality, this inequality should not make it harder for those without resources to occupy positions of power – for instance, public office.
Equality of oppurtunity
The idea that everyone should have the same chance of fulfilment, and that this should not be limited by your starting point or place in society.
MLs, especially, have endorsed measures designed to break down those barriers that hold people back. Note that this is different to the equality often sort by socialists (equality of outcome).
Liberals are often comfortable with inequality in society, as long as those inequalities are brought about on “an even playing field”.
Welfare state
Concept where the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of citizens.
It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for life.
(See Government Intervention)
