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Comparative Anatomy And Physiology Of Animals > Locomotion > Flashcards

Locomotion Flashcards

(91 cards)

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1
Q

Reasons animals move

A

Get food
Avoid predation
Find mates
Find/follow suitable habitat

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2
Q

Types of muscle shape

A

Longitudinal
Pennate
Convergent
Circular

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3
Q

Types of longitudinal muscles

A

Fusiform
Parallel

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4
Q

Types of pennate muscles

A

Multipennate
Bipennate
Unipennate

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5
Q

Resistive forces to motion

A

Friction - terrestrial
Gravity
Drag - aquatic

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6
Q

Crawling

A

Peristaltic/pedal waves associated with
-loops
-anchors
2 anchor system the simplest

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7
Q

Types of peristaltic/pedal waves

A

Retrograde
Direct

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8
Q

Retrograde waves

A

Waves move from back to front
Mostly in septate animals

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9
Q

Direct waves

A

Waves move from back to front
Mostly in non-septate animals

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10
Q

Pedal waves

A

Move forward
Interwaves = stationary
Pedal waves move faster than the animal
Friction in interwaves must be stronger than friction in the waves
Net direction of movement is forward

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11
Q

Movement via pedal waves

A

Pedal waves- animal lifts the body away from the ground but only marginally
Interwaves- animal presses down against the ground, providing thrust

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12
Q

Types of pedal waves

A

Monotaxic - single line of waves
Ditaxic - 2 asynchronous lines of waves
Tertrataxic - 4 asynchronous lines of waves

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13
Q

Pedal mucus

A

Combination of sticky pedal mucus with a thinner lubricating mucus (comprising the snail slime) provides lubrication while allowing sufficient grip to overcome gravity
Pressure beyond a critical value causes the mucus to lose adhesive property
The change in pressure is caused by the animal pressing against the surface.
Animal would have to press down in pedal waves instead of lifting, thus exceeding the critical stress yield value of the mucus

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14
Q

Sidewinding

A

More efficient in plain surfaces with few irregularities to provide grip, such as desert plains

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15
Q

Types of crawling

A

Pedal waves
Sidewinding
Lateral undulation
Vertebrate crawling
Galloping

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16
Q

Lateral undulation

A

A variation of anchor and loop movement in invertebrates

Made easier and more efficient by the presence of the spinal chord

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17
Q

Structure of muscle

A

Sarcomere
Myosin and actin
ZIAHMHAIZ

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18
Q

What are septate animals

A

Segmented

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19
Q

Peristaltic waves

A

Works because the animal is surrounded by soil

Thickening of the body increases contact with the surrounding soil, increasing friction (with the help of specialized setae)

Thinning of the body has the opposite effect

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20
Q

Frictional anisotropy

A

Difference in friction on snake scales depending on direction on the ground

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21
Q

Stride definition

A

One full cycle of leg movement
2 phases in one stride: swing phase and stance phase

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22
Q

How is leg movement achieved

A

a set of muscles that connect inside of the thorax to the coxa of the leg
Leg flexing and extension controlled by muscles in the Femur
Muscles attach to the inside surface of the exoskeleton.

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23
Q

Arthropod biomechanics

A

Exoskeleton constraints the size and positioning of the muscle
Insect legs have a wide range of movement but produce relatively little work

Muscles are often pennate, which have shorter contraction distances, but produce more force
They also don’t change volume with contraction

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24
Q

Leg posture in arthropods

A

Horizontal sprawled leg postures allow some insects to take advantage of gravity for leg movement

Vertical sprawled leg postures can decouple weight loading from movement muscles

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25
What descriptors describe different gaits
- Leg position - Stepping pattern - Stride period (time for one leg to complete one movement cycle) - Stride length (distance the centre of mass covers in one stride cycle - Stride cycle (rate at which segments are cycled) - Speed = stride length x stride frequency - Duty factor (fraction of time one leg supports load) - Phase (fraction of a cycle on leg leads or lags another)
26
Walking
For walking to occur, potential energy must be converted to kinetic energy Bipedal walking similar to an inverted pendulum mechanism Because gravity acceleration is constant, there is a limit to how fast animals can walk To move faster, animals must change gait
27
Sprawled gait
Sprawled vertebrates increase speed by moving legs faster and exaggerating sideways movement to increase step distance; energetically costly
28
Running
Takes advantage of gravity and body elasticity to preserve energy Duty factor is lower in running than in walking In most animals, duty factor = 0.5 marks the boundary between walking and running Under this criteria, cockroaches never run
29
Quantifying gaits- froude number
Fr = V^2/gL V = velocity g = gravity acceleration L = length of leg Ratio of centripetal forces and gravity
30
Why are insects size limited
Insects are small and lightweight, so little work is required to move them There is a maximum size an insect can attain, beyond which the animal muscles cannot produce enough work to sustain their own weight.
31
At what froude number do all vertebrates shift from walking to running
0.5 (0.3-0.8)
32
Quadrupedal running gaits
Symmetrical: trot, pace (camels), amble (elephants) Asymmetric used at Fr>2.5
33
Jumping/hopping
Development of hind legs relative to body length Smaller femur, with longer fibula/tibia and feet bones (only for vertebrates)
34
What force does walking take most advantage of
Gravity
35
Duty factor
How long the legs are on the ground
36
At what duty factor is the boundary between walking and running
0.5
37
Centripetal force equation
mV^2/L
38
Gravity equation
mg
39
Disadvantage of sprawled gaits
High energetic cost
40
What gave humans a locomotive advantage
Sweating system
41
Important forces in aquatic locomotion
Buoyancy Drag Gravity
42
What is the big opponent in aquatic locomotion
Drag
43
Moving through water
Positive buoyancy reduces effect of gravity High density of water increases the effect of drag Water must be pushed back to achieve forward thrust (wake)
44
Reynolds number
Inertial drag/ viscous drag ( Density x velocity x length ) / viscosity
45
Low Reynolds number <10
Fluid behaves like honey
46
High Reynolds number >100
Fluid behaves like water
47
What can affect the Reynolds number
How fast they swim Size
48
Gaits in aquatic locomotion in invertebrates
Rowing (drag powered) Tail-flipping Lift powered Jetting
49
Rowing
Works at low and high Reynolds numbers Forward movement of the oars produces drag, making it relatively inefficient
50
Tail flipping
Works only at Reynolds numbers >500 Turns the shrimp into a hydrodynamic shape
51
Jetting
Provides fast acceleration but energetically costly over long periods Good to escape predators Works best at Reynolds numbers >2000 Jet orifice - shoot water out
52
Gaits in aquatic locomotion in vertebrates
Lift powered Lateral undulation
53
Lift powered
Works great at Reynolds numbers >2000 Sinusoidal movement of pectoral fins provides lift on both forward and back strokes Fluid moves faster on one side of the body , generating lift
54
Lateral undulation
Characterised by waves of contraction from front to back of body Waves push against the water providing thrust At high speeds the whole body of fish acts as a hydrofoil
55
Muscle used in lateral undulation
White muscle has low haemoglobin and mitochondria concentration; used during anaerobic swimming Red muscle has high haemoglobin and mitochondria concentration; used during aerobic swimming Proportion of red muscle varies from as little as 1% (cod), to 14% (mackerel) or more (tuna) Muscle organization allows for even shortening through whole body
56
Undulation
Fish can use a combination of both Lateral undulation moves a lot of water to the sides… thus increasing drag More efficient to maintain a rigid body, and concentrate wave movement as far back to the tail as possible (keep an airfoil shape)
57
Swimming energetics
Water moves back at each stroke, thus dissipating some energy of such stroke Drag increases with velocity squared (v*v) Momentum is mass * velocity More efficient to move large amounts of water at slow speeds, than small amounts of water at high speeds.
58
Most efficient swimmers in the ocean
Cetaceans
59
Size and swimming energetics
Larger —> more water displaced —> swim more efficiently
60
Type of muscle used in short term thrusts
Red muscle
61
Type of muscle used in long term swimming
White muscle
62
Tail lift
Geometry of tail affects type of lift and power generated Wider tails with points at ends - long distance movement Smaller tails- thrust and power
63
Thrust = momentum
Mass x velocity = momentum Drag increases as velocity increases V^2 Therefore if double velocity of water drag increases by factor of 4 So moving more water, slower = same momentum but least lost to drag
64
Cetaceans
Whales Dolphins Porpoises
65
Why are whales migratory
Swimming is very energy efficient due to size
66
Important forces in aerial locomotion
Drag Gravity
67
Wing properties
Faster you go Drag changes as a function of velocity Easier to generate lift Easier to fight gravity
68
Physics of flying
Air behaves like a fluid The same principles of drag and lift talked about in aquatic locomotion apply to aerial locomotion The main differences relate to lower density of air relative to water, and the constant effect of GRAVITY
69
Reynolds number and aerial locomotion
Dependent on surface properties- bumpy = faster Flight velocity and drag
70
Lift to drag ratio
Lift/drag Birds = 2-20 Insects = 0.5-2
71
Gaits for aerial locomotion in vertebrates
Hovering Forward powered flight Gliding/soaring
72
Vertebrate wings
Muscles on endoskeleton
73
Hovering
Forward and backward stroke to generate lift Hummingbirds = symmetrical - figure of 8 pattern Kestrels = asymmetrical - bend their wings in the backstroke to reduce drag - push down to generate lift
74
Vertebrate wing muscles
Flight is promoted by the pectoral muscles, connecting the sternum to the humerus near the shoulder joint Good distance advantage, but weak force advantage Sternum is modified to allow the attachment of large muscles
75
Gliding
3 forces must be in balance: lift (provided by wings); drag (caused by air resistance); weight (promoted by gravity) Gliding angle is changed by moving wings (backwards increase the angle), higher angles means higher speeds Minimum sink speed is the forward speed at which downward speed is less Maximum range speed is the forward speed at which gliding angle is minimum, thus travelling a higher distance for a given height loss Maximum range speed is slightly faster than Minimum sink speed Gliding farther means increasing speed at the expense of faster height loss
76
Minimum sink speed
Forward speed at which downward speed is less
77
Maximum range speed
The forward speed at which gliding angle is minimum, thus travelling a higher distance for a given height loss
78
Gliding and size
Larger birds glide faster Remaining differences due to wing shape
79
Soaring
If there is a vertical component to the wind, then animals can keep gliding indefinitely Many birds of prey take advantage of local upward winds to hover without flapping wings Allow to scan for prey with minimum fuss
80
Types of soaring
Slope soaring Thermal soarin- takes advantage of warm convection currents
81
Gaits of aerial locomotion in invertebrate s
Hovering Forward powered flight
82
Difference in insects and birds flying
Wings can be smaller Generating wing motions must be faster (smaller so must move faster in order to generate the necessary force) Air is different when you’re small- Reynolds number- insects have a lower Reynolds number (air is more viscous)
83
Forward flight
Movement of wings similar to movement of fins in lift powered swimming Wing is rotated in the upstroke to avoid downward lift
84
Insect flight muscles
Muscles that power flight attach to the inside of the thorax, not the wings themselves Change in thorax shape forces the wings up and down Maximizes power given the limited space inside exoskeleton Muscles that attach to the wing are small and only control wing orientation
85
What powers soaring
Updraft of air
86
Where can slope soaring occur
Hills Dunes Waves
87
Wing morphology
Slope soarer- long and narrow Thermal soarer- wide and large Hunter- shorter and wide (can generate large amounts of thrust for strikes)
88
Why can insect wings be smaller and thinner
Mass is proportional to volume Lift is proportional to wing area
89
How can insects combat a low Reynolds number
Increasing initial speed- take off by generating powerful jumps
90
Hovering in insects
Difference between hovering and forward flight depends on body angle relative to ground Change angle of body- tilt up to change direction of lift - as cannot change direction of wings
91
Muscles in wings?
Insects must tilt whole body as cannot change direction of wings as have no muscles in wings

Comparative Anatomy And Physiology Of Animals (17 decks)

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