Logic Flashcards
1
Q
Philosophy and Logic
The burden of proof for an asserted claim is on whom?
A
The individual who made the claim
2
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is the definition of Occam’s razor?
A
“Entities should not be multiplied without necessity.”
I.e. don’t unnecessarily add explanations for events or make extra assumptions when a single explanation makes more sense.
Example: any conspiracy theory that seeks to explain some event via external agents and/or secret plots without providing any information that has a much simpler solution.
3
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is the opposite of Occam’s razor?
A
Occam’s broom
(the process in which inconvenient facts are whisked under the rug by intellectually dishonest players)
4
Q
Philosophy and Logic
In loose terms, you can think of logic as the science/study of __________.
A
In loose terms, you can think of logic as the science/study of reasoning.
5
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What are basic beliefs and properly basic beliefs?
A
Basic beliefs - Beliefs justified by other beliefs
Properly basic beliefs - Beliefs that are taken as axiomatic or evident to the senses
6
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is the basic disagreement between scepticism, foundationalism, and coherentism as epistemic methods regarding how one should justify their beliefs?
A
Scepticism - justified beliefs are based on other beliefs, eventually terminating in a set of unjustified beliefs. (I.e., at a certain point, our beliefs are unjustifiable.)
Foundationalism - justified beliefs are based on other beliefs, eventually terminating in a set of properly basic beliefs (i.e., beliefs that are justified but not by other beliefs).
Coherentism - justified beliefs are based on other beliefs; at some point, the beliefs loop back on themselves. (I.e., a belief is justified if it is coherent with all or most other held beliefs that are true.)
7
Q
Philosophy and Logic
True/False.
Logic has a lot to tell us about the fundamental truth of what the universe is and all its characteristics.
A
False.
Logic is the tool of reasoning we use to assess our observations and beliefs;
it does not inherently make any claims about anything.
8
Q
Philosophy and Logic
To _______ is to draw conclusions from premises.
A
To infer is to draw conclusions from premises.
9
Q
Philosophy and Logic
An argument is a collection of statements, of which one is a(n) _________ and the rest are _________.
A
An argument is a collection of statements, of which one is a conclusion and the rest are premises.
10
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is deductive logic?
A
Logic in which the truth of the premises necessitates the truth of the conclusion
11
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is inductive logic?
A
Logic in which the truth of the premises makes likely the truth of the conclusion
12
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Simply put, deduction is making an inference based on what?
A
Widely accepted facts and/or premises
13
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Simply put, induction is making an inference based on what?
A
Past observances
14
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Simply put, abduction is making an inference based on what?
A
What you already know
15
Q
Which of the forms of inference (deductive, inductive, or abductive) is demonstrated in the examples below?
Sherlock Holmes looks at the evidence at a crime scene and concludes that the chef is most likely to have poisoned the food.
A physician looks at a patient’s signs and symptoms and writes up a differential with a working diagnosis.
A
Abductive
(combining all the observations into a somewhat likely conclusion)
16
Q
Which of the forms of inference (deductive, inductive, or abductive) is demonstrated in the examples below?
A sandwhich is meat between two slices of bread. A hotdog is meat between two slices of bread. Therefore, a hotdog is a sandwhich.
I have a 10 AM dentist appointment. It takes 35 minutes to get to the dentist’s office. I should leave at 9:25 AM.
A
Deductive
(reasoning from premises to a conclusion)
17
Q
Which of the forms of inference (deductive, inductive, or abductive) is demonstrated in the examples below?
Your six coworkers all order the same sandwich. You conclude that the sandwhich must be good.
You see tanks and soldiers line up on either side of a border between two fairly hostile countries. You conclude war is likely to break out soon.
A
Inductive
(using observations to draw a likely conclusion)
18
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Identify which of the forms of logic is highlighted by the following statements:
I am a man.
Men are mortal.
Therefore, I am a mortal.
A
Deductive logic
(based on the premises, the conclusion is certain)
19
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Identify which of the forms of logic is highlighted by the following statements:
The Indian and Pakistani armies are amassing on either side of the India-Pakistan border.
Therefore, there is a war coming.
A
Inductive logic
(based on the premises, the conclusion is likely)
20
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Identify which of the forms of logic is highlighted by the following statements:
A teenage, otherwise-healthy patient is thirsty, hungry, and has an elevated fasting plasma glucose.
They probably have type 1 diabetes mellitus.
A
Abductive logic
(based on our incomplete observations, the conclusion is our best guess [warranting further examination])
21
Q
Philosophy and Logic
__________ logic starts with a theory which is used to reach observations and a conclusion.
__________ logic starts with information which is used to reach a theory.
A
Inductive logic starts with a theory which is used to reach observations and a conclusion.
Deductive logic starts with information which is used to reach a theory.
22
Q
Philosophy and Logic
Describe deductive, inductive, and abductive logic in terms of certainty of conclusion.
A
Deductive - guaranteed true
Inductive - probably true (generalizations from examples)
Abductive - best guess
23
Q
Philosophy and Logic
What is a syllogism?
A
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion;
e.g., all humans are mortal (the major premise), I am a human (the minor premise), therefore, I am mortal (the conclusion).
24
Q
Philosophy and Logic
In analyzing a syllogism, what questions should be asked?
A
- Are the premises true?
- Does the conclusion follow from the premises?
25
# Philosophy and Logic
What does it mean for a syllogism to be factually correct?
If all of its premises are true
26
# Philosophy and Logic
What does it mean for a syllogism to be valid?
If its conclusion follows from its premises
27
# Philosophy and Logic
What does it mean for a syllogism to be sound?
If it is _both_ factually correct and valid
28
# Philosophy and Logic
To say that an argument is valid is to say that if the ________ were true, then the ________ would necessarily also be true.
To say that an argument is valid is to say that if the **_premises_** were true, then the **_conclusion_** would necessarily also be true.
29
# Philosophy and Logic
What are the three axiomatic laws of thought that make up the basis for rational discourse?
1. Identity
2. Non-contradiction
3. Excluded middle
30
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe the law of identity (one of the three axiomatic laws of thought that make up the basis for rational discourse).
'Whatever is, is.'
(a = a)
*(In practice,* **don't equivocate***. A word must have a finite number of definitions. You can't unilaterally redfine a word to no longer mean what the original discourse was addressing.)*
31
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe the law of non-contradiction (one of the three axiomatic laws of thought that make up the basis for rational discourse).
'Nothing can both be and not be'
(The following two statements cannot both be true and are mutually exclusive: A = B; A ≠ B) [(as a tautology, A = B or A ≠ B)]
* (In essence, two or more contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time. **Some things are true, and some things are false.***
* To reject this premise is to declare it false, thus using the law of noncontradiction and nullifying your argument)*
32
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe the law of excluded middle (one of the three axiomatic laws of thought that make up the basis for rational discourse).
'Propositions are either true or they are false.'
(Proposition A = true (or) Proposition A = false)
* (In essence, **a given proposition cannot be partially true.***
* In addition, it cannot be true 'for you' alone or true 'for me' alone.)*
33
# Philosophy and Logic
A person says, 'diversity is our strength.'
He also says, 'diversity is dangerous.'
**These two statements together seem to break which law of thought?**
**_The law of non-contradiction_**
Correction:
Person 1 says, 'diversity ***of thought*** is our strength ***in that it brings new ideas to the table and helps up identify our blindspots and avoid echo chambers.***'
He also says, 'diversity ***of culture and preferences*** is dangerous ***in that it may decrease group cohesion and productivity.***'
34
# Philosophy and Logic
Person 1 says, *'do you believe that taxes are a headache?'*
Person 2 says, *'yes.'*
Person 1 says, *'wow, so you believe pain killers will make your taxes go away.'*
**Person 1 is violating which law of thought?**
**_The law of identity_**
Person 1 is equivocating and dishonestly using _headache_ to mean both 'annoyance' and also 'literal head pain.'
35
# Philosophy and Logic
I tell you, 'the door is not unlocked, but that doesn't imply that it is locked.'
## Footnote
**This is a violation of which law of thought?**
**_The law of excluded middle_**
*The proposition that a door is unlocked is a direct contradiction to the door being locked. So, if the door is not unlocked, that by definition implies that it is locked.*
36
# Philosophy and Logic
What philosophical perspective argues that whatever option of action brings the maximum amount of 'happiness' or 'well-being' to the world of conscious individuals is the most morally correct option?
Utilitarianism
37
# Philosophy and Logic
What philosophical perspective follows a careful, logical line of moral reasoning to argue that we have a duty to respect the rights of individuals and follow this as a rule in how we approach our own goals?
Deontology
38
# Philosophy and Logic
What is a 'red herring' in conversation?
A comment that throws the conversation off course and derails the logical flow
39
# Philosophy and Logic
What fallacy is represented by the argument that 'the truth is always somewhere in the middle?'
The 'middle ground fallacy'
| (an argument to moderation)
40
# Philosophy and Logic
What is a false dichotomy?
An assertion that a particular situation or problem has **two mutually exclusive modes or solutions and ignoring a potential third option**.
41
# Philosophy and Logic
What does *reductio ad absurdum* mean?
**The form of argument that attempts to establish a claim by showing that the opposite scenario would lead to absurdity or contradiction**
*'The slippery slope fallacy'*
E.g. the Earth cannot be flat; otherwise, we would find people falling off the edge.
E.g. fast food consumption leads to obesity. Obesity leads to heart attacks. Therefore, fast food consumption leads to heart attacks.
42
# Philosophy and Logic
What fallacy refers to a person asserting that a problem should be downplayed because it is not as bad as it is could be?
## Footnote
*(E.g. why worry about LGBT issues when climate change is so much bigger? Why worry about the marketing problems in your company when you should just be glad you have a marketing department, remembering that some companies don't?)*
The fallacy of relative privation
43
# Philosophy and Logic
**Give a few examples of the fallacy 'begging the question'** (i.e., circular reasoning in which the conclusion is assumed in the premise, often by leading with a bit of slight of hand in which a shaky premise which hasn't been confirmed is assumed to be true).
*(Note: this is different from the colloquial usage which is typically used to mean that one's statement raises or calls for a certain question.)*
"Since I am not lying, it follows that I am telling the truth."
"The word of God as found in the Bible is perfect. How do I know this? Because it says so in the Bible, which is the perfect word of God."
"If such actions were not illegal, they wouldn't be against the law."
44
# Philosophy and Logic
What is the *Post hoc* fallacy?
An argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event *simply by virtue of having happened earlier.*
45
# Philosophy and Logic
What is 'special pleading?'
The presentation of an argument that mentions or emphasizes only favorable aspects of the question at issue.
## Footnote
*(i.e. an argument that ignores all unfavorable evidence)*
46
# Philosophy and Logic
What is an infinite regression in regards to an argument?
An argument that continually justifies itself upon deeper and deeper layers of the same argument
## Footnote
* (Ex. 1 - everything that exists had to have been created by a creator. --- So who created the creator? Who created the creator who made the first creator? And so on.*
* Ex. 2 - the homunculus theory of mind: the ghost in our machinery is just like a little being who inspects our thoughts, memories, emotions, and other neural processes as they come and go. --- So does the ghost in the machine have a small being inside of it too? Who looks in his head? And who looks in that little guy's head? And so on.)*
47
# Philosophy and Logic
Generally speaking, what are ethos, logos, and pathos?
Methods of persuasion
48
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe ethos as a method of persuasion.
Ethos is to convince an audience of **the author’s credibility or character**.
49
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe pathos as a method of persuasion.
Pathos is to persuade an audience by **appealing to** their **emotions**.
50
# Philosophy and Logic
Describe logos as a method of persuasion.
Logos is to convince an audience by use of **logic** or **reason**.
51
# Philosophy and Logic
What is the difference between formal and informal fallacies?
_Formal fallacies_ are errors that can be seen **within the argument's form**. Every formal fallacy is a **non sequitur**.
_Informal fallacies_ occur when **the conclusion is not supported by the provided premises**.
52
# Philosophy and Logic
What are the four formal fallacies?
BRQPS
Bad reason f.
Quantification f.
Propositional f.
Syllogystic f.
53
# Philosophy and Logic
The following is an example of which formal fallacy?
_Ostriches cannot fly, therefore they are not birds._
**Bad reason f.**
*The reason A given for argument B is bad, therefore conclusion B is not valid.*
_Ostriches cannot fly but are still birds._
54
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which formal fallacy?
_Financial experts agree that everyone should invest in technology stocks._
_All dogs hate some cats._
**Quantification f.**
*The reason A quantifers are different from the conclusion B quantifiers.*
_Financial experts are likely not all in agreement._
_That all dogs hate some cats is unverifiable._
55
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which formal fallacy?
_William Shatner is Captain Kirk or he is in Miss Congeniality. William Shatner is in Miss Congeniality. Therefore he is not Captain Kirk._
_I am going to bed or reading a book. I feel really tired tonight, so I will go to bed. So, I cannot read._
**Propositional f.**
*In order for a compound proposition to have a true value, each component proposition must also be true.*
_William Shatner can be both Captain Kirk and in Miss Congeniality._
_I can read a book and go to bed._
56
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which formal fallacy?
_All sharks are fish. All salmon are fish. Therefore all salmon are sharks._
_No philosophers are elephants. All elephants are mammals. Therefore no philosophers are mammals._
**Syllogystic f.**
*This occurs with a reference to something general, and then makes a conclusion about something more specific.*
_Both salmon and sharks can be fish without being one another._
_Both elephants and philosophers can be mammals while simultaneously not being one another._
57
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Bill claims that this was an accident, but we know Bill to be a liar, so we can't take his word for it._
_Susan is an avid hunter, therefore she cannot possibly support gun control._
**Ad hominem f.**
*This fallacy is associated with trying to undermine the opponent's arguments by personal attacks, through attacking their character or skill level, etc. The ad hominem attack uses an* accepted *fact about a person to undermine their credibility despite the* lack of causal connection *between the two parts of the argument.*
_Bill being a liar doesn't mean his claim is false._
_Susan being a hunter doesn't mean she doesn't suport any gun control._
58
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Bill Clinton's "I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky."_
_I know John very well. He would never do 'x'._
**Ambiguity f.**
*The use of a double meaning or an unclear descriptive applied to mislead or misrepresent the truth. Then changing the meaning of the terms later.*
_Clinton likely used the term 'sexual relations' loosely to leave out oral sex._
_'I know John very well' is a vague, unverifiable claim._
59
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Leanne thinks smoking does not affect life expectancy since her grandmother smoked for 4 decades and lived to be 87._
_I have never seen a happy marriage. Getting married is a bad idea._
**Anecdotal f.**
*The anecdotal fallacy uses a personal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument.*
_Leanne's mother is not a large or representative sample of normal smoking effects on the population._
_Your experience is not a large or representative sample of marriage on the population._
60
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_If the Pope says that an aspect of doctrine is true, then it should be added to the creed, since he is infallible._
_The mayor said that the crime rate is down. The statistics claiming otherwise must be erroneous._
**Appeal to authority f.**
*The argument that if one credible source believes something that it must be true.*
_No human is infallble._
_The mayor may be wrong, and she has an incentive to downplay crime under her watch._
61
# Philosophy and Logic
**True/False**.
Any citation to an authority figure in an argument is a fallacy.
**False**.
Any citation to an ***irrelevant*** authority figure in an argument is a fallacy *(the opinion of authorities can still hold some weight, even if the fact that they argue a certain position does not make it necessarily true)*.
62
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Sarah did not want to eat liverwurst for dinner, but he mother told her to think of all the starving children in the world who do not have food at all._
_A cereal commercial shows kids enjoying their breakfast with a happy mom in the background._
**Appeal to emotion f.**
*Makes a claim based on sympathy or empathetic instead of just or logical grounds.*
_How Sarah feels or thinks about starving children has no impact on whether or not she should eat hur liverwurst._
_Almost every commercial is an appeal to emotion in which you see individuals happier because of a product._
63
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_"John was well within his rights to avenge his wife after he witnessed her being brutally murdered. Killing the murderer was the natural response."_
_Product packaging that claims 'natural' ingredients._
**Appeal to nature f.**
*That just because something is natural that it is therefore valid, justified, or inevitable.*
_Whether or not killing a murderer is the natural response, something being natural does not make it necessarily moral or right._
_There are many naturally occurring poisons which would be harmful if ingested._
64
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_A recent study shows 8 out of 10 doctors say that acupuncture is an effective therapy. 8 out of 10 doctors can't be wrong!_
_Everyone else is going to attend a four-year university, so I am going to do the same instead of taking classes at a local community college._
**Bandwagon f.**
*The popularity of something as a means of validating it.*
_The number of individuals who do something or agree with something has no bearing on the decision to an action or the truth of an assertion._
65
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Opium is known to put people to sleep because it contains soporific properties._
_Stocks are the best investment since every other investment is an inferior option._
**Begging the question f.**
*Circular arguments in which the conclusion is included in the premise of the argument.*
_Both are circular arguments. The assertions add no real evidence to back the claims._
66
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Ellis: "I believe that fairies exists."_
_Marty: "How can you prove it?_
_Ellis: "I don't have to, if you can't prove that fairies don't exist."_
_An employee claims harassment without proof, and argues that the employer cannot prove that she was not harassed._
**Burden of proof f.**
*Occurs when someone who is making a claim, puts the burden of proof on another party to disprove what they are claiming.*
_It is up to the individual making the claim to back it up and prove it._
67
# Philosophy and Logic
What fallacy is related to the fallacy of shifting the burden of proof and occurs when someone argues that a certain conclusion is true because there is no evidence against it?
**Appeal to ignorance** f.
68
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Whatever is less dense than water will float, because such objects won't sink in water._
_Women should be able to have abortions, so abortion should be legal and easily available._
**Circular reasoning f.**
*Occurs when the one reasoning begins with the claim with which they are trying to conclude.*
_These statements just state the same assertion twice_
69
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Philosophy students are taught how to argue, but shouldn't we teach them something more helpful? After all there are already a lot of arguments and conflicts in the world._
_Claiming someone is unethical because they have a bad work ethic._
**Equivocation f.**
*Uses misleading terms of more than one meaning without clarifying which definition is intended in the scenario.*
_Argue and argument have different meanings here than the connotations being ascribed._
_The term unethical is very different from ethic as used in 'work ethic.'_
70
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_"Lucy, why do you call your children 'kids?' Don't you see how offensive it is to liken your children to immature little goats?"_
_Calling someone (a straight person) who is happy and jolly 'gay' and insisting that only the old meaning of 'gay' is valid._
**Etymological** **f.**
*Poses that a certain term's original meaning applies to its colloquial and modern understanding in current circumstances.*
_'Kid' can refer to more than just baby goats._
_'Gay' used to mean happy but is rarely used this way today._
71
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Jenna thinks we should do yoga before work because it is natural and is said to relax you. Miles thinks we should also smoke pot before work for the same reasons._
_Whenever it rains, the sky is cloudy. The sky is cloudy now, so it must be raining._
**Fallacy f.**
*Based on false claims, but is logically coherent.*
_Do we know that yoga or pot are likely to relax us before work?_
_It is possible for the sky to be cloudy but not to be raining._
72
# Philosophy and Logic
The following is an example of which informal fallacy?
_Each part of this chair is cheap, so the whole chair for sale must be cheap._
**Composition f.**
*Makes the assumption that the characteristics of the parts of something will apply to the whole.*
_The characteristics of the components do not necessarily decide the characteristic of the whole._
73
# Philosophy and Logic
The following is an example of which informal fallacy?
_Healthy brains think. Healthy brains are comprised of nothing but brain cells. If healthy brains think, then the individual brain cells can think too._
**Division f.**
*Makes the assumption that the characteristics of the whole must apply to all the parts.*
_The characteristics of the whole do not necessarily decide the characteristics of the components._
74
# Philosophy and Logic
The following is an example of which informal fallacy?
_I eat bananas for a snack every day. One day I skipped my banana, and my car was broken into. I have not missed a day of banana-snacking since._
**False cause f.**
*False cause refers to an argument where someone cites sequential events as evidence that the first event caused the second.*
_Your banana-snacking has no effect on a parked car's safety._
75
# Philosophy and Logic
The following is an example of which informal fallacy?
_John showed me this book that proved scientists have empirical evidence for the existence of mermaids, but I lost the book and don't remember the title._
**False attribution f.**
*Happens when someone appeals to irrelevant, biased, or unqualified information.*
_Vague, ambiguous sources for your evidence creates an unfalsifiable position._
76
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_You are either with me or against me._
_Either you buy me this toy, or you don't love me._ *(Child saying to a parent)*
**False dichotomy** **f.**
*Presents two alternative states as the only possibilities when more possibilities may exist.*
_You could also partially support the person. You could go against their goals because you believe it's for their benefit._
_A parent can love their child even if they don't buy the specific toy._
77
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Edna had rolled a 6 with the dice the last 9 consecutive times. Surely it would be highly unlikely that she would roll another 6 on the 10th time._
_My sister's first three children have been girls. The fourth one is sure to be a boy._
**Gambler's f.**
*Based on the false belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event, or that if something happens often that it is less likely that the same will take place in the future.*
_Past events that are isolated from the current event have no bearing on the likelihood of the current event._
78
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_I was brought up Mormon, so I believe Mormonism is the truth, since my parents are good people and they wouldn't lie to me._
_My physician is overweight. I can't trust any of his health advice._
**Genetic** **f.**
*Which reasons that one can accurately judge or assess something as good or bad based on where it originates from.*
_The character of the individual providing information has no bearing on whether or not the information is true *(even if it may change the way you approach the information)*._
79
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_"Marijuana has mind-numbing elements that affect your memory so how can you say you have never had marijuana if you can't remember? Now exactly how much pot did you smoke?"_
_"Do you think the President should be impeached for colluding with foreign powers?"_
**Loaded question f.**
*Arises by asking a question that presupposes a claim so that it cannot be answered to without sounding guilty.*
_You can't answer the marijuana question without seeming to prove the individual's point, even though their assertions are not confirmed._
_This assumes you see the President's actions as collusion._
80
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Joe says the sky is pink and Liz says the sky is blue, so they should really just compromise and say the sky is purple._
_Dan says that all elephants can fly. Sara says that there are no elephants that can fly. So they agree that perhaps some elephants can fly._
**Middle ground** **f.**
*Claims that since compromising is good, in any given situation the compromise will produce truth.*
_Sometimes, one person in an argument is just correct. The truth doesn't have to be in the middle._
81
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_John doesn't drink alcohol. No real man avoids alcohol. John isn't a real man._
_Sarah always wears slacks. No real woman would wear slacks. Sarah is not a real woman._
**No true Scotsman** **f.**
*Appeals to the "purity" of an ideal or standard as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws in your argument.*
_These arguments claim an ideal form of a man or woman. There is no basis for the claim that one knows what a 'true' man or 'true' woman is._
82
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Irene was 89 years old, had never left the small town in Iowa where she was raised, and she had never seen a sea vessel. Though Michael had tried to describe what Navy life on the submarine would be like, she didn't believe a word was true. How could a glorified metal tube sustain the lives of many men, while submerged for months at a time?_
_"It is not possible that we landed a man on the moon. How could a tiny capsule with relatively primitive computer technology travel millions of miles in space, travel through radiation, avoid space debris, land and then make the return journy unharmed?"_
**Argument from Incredulity f.**
*Occurs when one finds a concept difficult to understand, or simply does not fathom how it works, then they conclude that it is likely untrue.*
_Your inability to understand or imagine how some event occurs does not make it impossible._
83
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Extended warranties are a very popular purchase by the consumer, so extended warranties must be good for the consumer._
_Everyone drives over the speed limit, so it should not be against the law._
**Argumentum ad Populum f.**
*Presumes that a proposition must be true because most/many believe it to be true.*
_The popularity of an opinion or action does not make it true or right._
84
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_"I know I cheated on the test, Mrs. Holburn. But what am I going to do, my parents will kill me!"_
_"Officer, I was speeding. But I have to return this book to the library. I don't want to have to pay a late fee."_
**Red herring f.**
*Focuses on arguing for an irrelevant topic with the intention of distracting the audience; this usually happens when the orator finds another topic easier to outline.*
_Your parents' reaction is irrelevant to whether or not you cheated and should be punished accordingly._
_Your needing to return a book is irrelevant to whether or not you broke the law and should be punished accordingly._
85
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_If we let our child out of his room, eventually he will want to leave the house, and will end up on the street. If he is walking around on the street then he will be snatched up by a stranger and sold into slavery in a remote region on the World._
_If Donald Trump gets elected for a second term, he will show his true colors as a nazi dictator, abolish the U.S. democratic republic, and appoint himself as emperor._
**Slippery slope f.**
*Consists of arguments that reason if something S were to happen, then something else P will eventually occur, so we should prohibit S from happening.*
_None of these steps of logic are warranted, with the later ones becoming more and more outlandish._
_None of these steps of logic are warranted, with the later ones becoming more and more outlandish._
86
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
*(Note: the fallacy has two definitions. Give both.)*
_"Yes, I know convicted drug abuse justifies imprisonment. But my son is a good kid, your honor, and just fell in with the wrong crowd."_
_"Officer, I know I was speeding, but I am headed to the hospital to visit a sick family member."_
**Special pleading f.**
*Occurs (1) when the orator ignores certain elements that are unhelpful for their claims,* **or** *(2) when one asks for special considerations to be given them or one of their premises.*
_Your son does not deserve special treatment._
_The urgency you feel does not necessarily grant you special treatment._
87
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_Those who oppose abortion have no respect for women's rights, and see women as baby-making machines, which is of course wrong. Women must be able to choose._
_People who oppose gun control are potential terrorists. We cannot allow terrorists to decide our laws. All guns should be banned._
**Strawman f.**
*Occurs when one misrepresents an argument so that it becomes easier to attack.*
_Those who abortion may have respect for women's rights but still disagree with some other action of abortion._
_Those who oppose gun control may have strong libertarian views (or some other explanation) rather than simply being more likely candidates for potential terrorism._
88
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_A recent study showed that the top 10 countries where Italian soda is most commonly consumed are also countries that have some of the lowest rankings in reported cases of depression. Therefore Italian soda makes people happy._
_Focus is placed on measurements which could be used to conclude that there is global warming happening, but other information and statistics which contradict those results are ignored._
**Texas sharp shooter f.**
*Occurs when a speaker chooses a cluster of data to apply to their argument, or when they find a pattern that they can apply to a presumption.*
_Though there may be a correlation between the two, that does not necessarily mean causation._
_Selecting only the data points that support your argument is the definition of this fallacy._
89
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_The Ancient Greeks were some of the greatest thinkers. They had slaves, so we should have slaves too._
_Jason: You cheated on your test. Don't you know that is wrong?_
_David: Didn't you cheat on your test last year?_
**Tu quoque f.**
*Answering criticism with criticism, or turning the argument back around on the other person. It also applied the logic that because someone has done something, that it justifies someone else doing the same thing.*
_Another agent's actions do not excuse your imitation of those actions._
_This is just a 'no, you' argument that does not actually respond to Jason's question._
90
# Philosophy and Logic
The following are examples of which informal fallacy?
_My piano teacher says I should practice one hour each day, but my father says I should practice three hours a day. They don't know what they are talking about, so I shouldn't practice at all._
_In the 70s, climate scientists said that the globe was cooling. Obviously the field can't be trusted._
_At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, the CDC said not not to wear masks. Now they say to. No one in the field knows what's actually going on._
**Inflation of conflict f.**
*Assumes the belief that the instances where scholars and scientists have differing opinions on the something, it calls the credibility of the entire field into question.*
_Conflict between sources of information do not indicate that there is no solid foundation by which truth can be found._
