Med Phys Exam 1 Flashcards
(247 cards)
1
Q
Define Homeostasis
A
The body’s ability to control it’s internal environment aka ability to RESIST CHANGE
2
Q
Name some bodily processes that help regulate temperature
A
Sweating
Flushing
Shivering
Convection
3
Q
Name some organs that contribute to the bodies removal of waste
A
Lungs
Kidneys
GI Tract
Liver
4
Q
What is the main organ that regulates homeostasis?
A
Hypothalamus
5
Q
What is the body’s primary mechanism to prevent a system from going extreme? Give some examples
A
Negative feedback, Control of body temperature, BG control, Respiratory, Endocrine hormones
6
Q
What are two examples of Positive feedback?
A
Contractions, Blood clotting
7
Q
What are the three things that are higher on the INSIDE of the cell?
A
K+, Mg+, PO4-
8
Q
What are the 8 things that are higher on the OUTSIDE
A
Na
Cl
Bicarb
Glucose
Fatty Acids
Amino Acids
CO2
O2
9
Q
What is the normal blood pH
A
7.4
10
Q
What are the 3 types of epithelial tissues? Where do you find each type?
A
Squamous: Flat
Cuboidal: Glands, tubules
Columnar: Uterus, stomach, intestines, galbladder, bile ducts
11
Q
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue? Give the smaller classification as well
A
Skeletal: striated-voluntary
Cardiac: striated- involuntary
Smooth: non-striated- involuntary
12
Q
Name the 4 connective tissue types
A
Collagen
Elastin
Ground Substance: proteoglycans
Fluid: Blood or plasma
13
Q
What are the properties of collagen? What is the major one?
A
Strong, flexible, INELASTIC
14
Q
What are the properties of elastin? What is the major one?
A
Rubbery, THICK COILED SPRING
15
Q
Name the 4 parts of the nervous tissue
A
Cell body, dendrities, axon, neuroglia
16
Q
Cells are made up of ______ water
A
70-85%
17
Q
What fat cells primarily composed of?
A
Triglycerides
18
Q
What are the 4 components of the cell?
A
Nucleus, cytoplasm, nuclear membrane, plasma membrane
19
Q
Integral proteins travel ____ the membrane
A
Through
20
Q
give 4 examples of of integral proteins
A
Channels
Carriers
Enzymes
Receptors
21
Q
Where are peripheral proteins located? Name 2 examples
A
on the surface, sometimes ATTACHED to integrals
Enzymes
Transport controllers
22
Q
Pinocytosis is responsible for _____ and ______
A
Drinking and PROTEINS
23
Q
Phagocytosis is responsible for ____
A
Large particles
24
Q
In Glycolysis 1 glycogen makes……
A
2 ATP
2 Pyruvate
2 NADH
25
In the Krebs cycle what is the starting input?
2 Pyruvate
26
What does the Krebs cycle produce?
2 ATP
2 CoA
2 OH
6 CO2
27
In the electron transport chain what are the starting inputs?
1 triacylglycerol and 1 glucose
28
What does the electron transport chain produce?
19 ATP via glycolysis + citric acid (1 glycerol)
441 ATP via B-Oxidation + Citric acid (3 FAs)
460 ATP total
29
*****What is the only thing that your brain can use for energy?
Glucose
30
What are membrane potentials?
Ion concentration differences
31
What is diffusion potential?
the potential difference between the inside and the outside
32
What is the resting membrane potential for neurons? Large neurons? Skeletal muscle?
-70mV
-90mV
-95mV
33
The Nernst Equation calculates potential ______ of the membrane for ______.
INSIDE, one specific ion
34
Goldman Equation is used for (all or one) ions?
All the ions
35
What substance is the membrane most permeable to?
K+
36
The Na-K ATPase pump does what?
Pumps 3 Na+ out, 2 K in
37
The leaky channels are leaking what substance to the outside of the cell?
K+
38
The Na-K ATPase pump requires what in order to work?
ATP
39
What are the three steps to action potentials?
1. Resting state (-90mV)
2. Depolarization of the cell
3. Repolarization- aka going back to being negatively charged
40
The second step of action potentials require the cell to reach what level in order to depolarize?
+35mv
41
The depolarization step in action potential is permeable to what substance? How long does it take to depolarize?
Sodium, 0.1ms to occur
42
In the third step of action potentials what is happening? How long does it take to occur?
- Cell is repolarizing - aka going back to -90mV
- 0.2ms to occur
- The cell is closed to Na
- K channels open wider and K diffuses out
- Resets the membrane potential
43
Activation gates are found of the _____ of the cell
outside
44
Inactivation gates are found on the _______
inside
45
At rest the activation gate is ______
closed
46
At inactivation the gate is _______. What does not enter?
open, Na
47
For voltage gated Na and K channels, at -70 to -50 mV is the activation gate open or closed? What happens?
Opens, Na pours in and depolarizes the cell to approx. +35mV
48
At +35mV what happens?
Inactivation gate closes and Na CANNOT enter
49
Describe what is happening in the picture.
Ask Skye to complete this card :)
50
How is creatine excreted?
through the kidneys in the urine
51
The average nerve fiber has ______ unmyelinated fibers than myelinated
two times more
Unmyelinated >2x> myelinated
52
What increases the conduction speed of nerve fibers?
Myelination
53
During the refractory period, what is ATP doing?
nothing, no new ATPs are produced during the refractory period
54
What is a good membrane stabilizer?
Ca2+
55
How does anesthetics work on nerve fibers?
Anesthetics disable Na channels so the nerves skip them
56
An action potential will occur once _____ happens
the action potential exceeds the threshold
57
Describe the all or none principle
The action potential either goes over the entire fiber or stops completely. No such thing as a "partial synapse"
58
Where does the signal enter the neuron?
Dendrite
59
Where does the signal exit the neuron?
Axon terminal
60
Describe how the signal flows through the neuron
1. Signal enters at the dendrite
2. Signal goes through neuron
3. Signal exits via the axon terminal
4. Axon then synapses with some second order neurons
61
Where are the neurotransmitters made?
in the cytosol of the presynaptic terminal
62
How are the signals in the CNS transmitted?
transmitted via chemicals
63
Name the 9 neurotransmitters.
1. Acetylcholine
2. Norepinephrine
3. Epinephrine
4. Histamine
5. GABA
6. Dopamine
7. Serotonin
8. Glutamate
9. Glycine
64
Which neurotransmitters inhibit?
Dopamine
Serotonin (Inhibitor or pain)
Glycine
65
Describe what is happening during the neurotransmitter release
1. Action potential depolarizes PRE-synaptic membranes
2. Calcium channels open
3. Release of calcium causes neurotransmitters to release from their vesicles
4. Neurotransmitters binds to the outside binding component
5. Inside Ionophore component is made of the G-protein complex.
6. Alpha component leaves and does most of the actions
66
During excitation what is the sodium channel doing?
opening, Sodium channels opening is the main cause of excitation
67
During excitation, tell me about what chloride/potassium are doing.
Decrease chloride going INSIDE
Decrease potassium going to the OUTSIDE
68
During excitation, tell me about the what the excitatory and inhibitor receptors are doing.
Increased # of excitatory receptors
Decreased # of inhibitory receptor
69
Is excitation associated with metabolic acidosis or alkalosis?
Metabolic alkalosis (increased pH)
70
During inhibition, what is the sodium/chloride channel doing?
Chloride channels are opening
71
During inhibition, tell me about what chloride/potassium are doing.
Increased potassium going to the outside
72
During inhibition, tell me about the what the excitatory and inhibitor receptors are doing.
-Increased # of inhibitory receptors
-Decreased # of excitatory receptors
73
Is Inhibition associated with metabolic acidosis or alkalosis?
Metabolic Acidosis - pH decreases- Blood is more acidic
74
An epileptic person undergo a keto diet makes them more ______ and helps suppress seizures
Acidotic
75
Where are neurotransmitters made? Are they rapidly or slowly acting?
Made in the cytosol of the presynaptic terminal, rapidly acting
76
Where are neuropeptides made? Are they rapidly or slowly acting?
by ribosomes in the neuronal cell bodies, slower acting
77
Are neuropeptides or neurotransmitters very potent and long lasting?
Neuropeptides- (think hormones)
78
Where is the greatest excitation happening on the neuron?
Greatest at the the tips of the dendrites
79
As the stimulus approaches the cell body, what is leaking?
potassium
80
Inhibition is the greatest at what part on the neuron?
The closer you get to the soma/cell body
81
_____ increases as you approach the soma
Polarization
82
Describe the effect of caffeine on the synaptic transmission
Increases neuronal excitability by reducing the threshold for excitation of neurons
83
Describe the effects of strychnine on synaptic transmission. What does it cause?
Increases excitability of neurons by inhibiting the action of some normally inhibitory transmitter substances
Causes severe tonic muscle spasms
84
What is the effect of anesthetics on synaptic transmission
increased neuronal membranes threshold for excitation by decreasing synaptic transmission
85
Define temporal summation
Consecutive synapses firing equals buildup to a bigger action potential
86
The pyramidial tract is involved with upper or lower motor neurons? Is it lateral or ventromedial?
pyramidial = Upper motor neurons
lateral
87
The extrapyramidial tract is involved with upper or lower motor neurons? Is it lateral or ventromedial?
Extrapyramidial tract is LOWER motor neurons
Ventromedial
88
The pyramidial tract is characterized by......
Babinski sign, hypertonic spasticity, clonus, hyperreflexia, loss of fine motor skills, muscle wasting
89
The extapyramidial tract is characterized by......
Parkinsons or dyskinesias
90
What are some common signs of dyskinesias (involuntary, random movements)
Tremor
Pill rolling
Chorea
Myoclonus
Tics
Dystonia
91
Describe the 6 steps in the reflex arc
1. Stimulus
2. Peripheral receptor
3. Afferent sensory fiber
4. Interneuron in spinal cord
5. Efferent motor fiber
6. Effector
92
What is one motor unit made up of?
1 alpha motor neuron + muscle fibers
93
Describe motor pool
all alpha motor neurons projecting to a given muscle
94
Cross sectional area of a muscle: ______ + _______
of fibers + size of fibers
95
Also means that motor units from the same pool have > 10% variance in force generated.
ASK SKYE WHAT THIS MEANS
96
Describe the size principle
Small fibers are recruited first, aka fast twitch is recruited last
97
Describe a type 1 fiber
slow twitch = endurance, aka red muscles
98
Describe a type 2 fiber
fast twitch = power, aka white muscles
99
What is the basic functional unit of a muscle fiber?
Sacromere
100
What is a myocyte
muscle fiber
101
What is a myofibril
a bundle of sarcomeres
102
Intrafusal fibers are innervated by ______, and are responsible for ????
Gamma-motor neurons, change the spindles length
103
Primary spindle afferents are what type of fibers? What types of sensation are they responsible for?
1a, annulospiral, dynamic changes (tapping and vibration)
104
Secondary spindle afferents are what type of fibers? What types of sensation are they responsible for?
2?, flower spray, static changes in length (posture)
105
Describe what is happening during the stretching of intrafusal fibers
1. Activating gamma motor neurons, shortening ends, stretching center.
2. Passively lengthening of intrafusal fibers
106
Describe what is happening during muscle contraction
1. EPSP reaches muscle fibril and AP propagates.
2. Sarcolemma release Ca++
3. Ca++ binding to troponin exposes binding site.
4. Muscle contraction first begins with cross-bridging of actin and myosin.
5. ATP is currently bound to myosin
6. Release of ATP => power stroke
7. New ATP joining = BREAKING CROSS BRIDGE
8. Hydrolyzing the ATP => myosin bends again.
107
ATP releasing causes what during muscle contraction
Causes the power stroke
108
ATP rebinding causes what during muscle contraction
Causes myosin to release from action
109
***What are alternative ways to make a post synaptic membrane more excitable?
Increase number of excitatory membrane receptors or decrease inhibitory membrane receptors
110
What are the two components of the post- synaptic neuron
Binding (outside) and ionophore (inside) components
111
What are the two prevertebral ganglia?
Celiac and hypogastric
112
Where do the sympathetic nerve fibers originate?
between T1 and L2
113
How does the sympathetic nervous system effect the eye, heart and bronchi?
Causes the pupil to dilate
Heart to beat faster
bronchi to dilate which allows more air in your lungs
114
the sympathetic nervous system has a (long or short) PREganglion and (long or short) POSTganglion fiber?
short PRE
Long POST
115
The parasympathetic nervous system has a (long or short) PREganglion and (long or short) POSTganglion fiber?
long :PRE
short: POST
116
A preganglionic fiber that goes through a white ramus and gray ramus and then goes back into the spinal nerve can go one of three places. Name them
Blood vessels
Sweat glands
Piloerector- hair standing up
117
What is the neurotransmitter that is used for the three places that comes out of spinal nerve?
Acetylecoline
118
Splanic nerve
119
Name the 4 cranial nerves that are parasympathetic. Which one does the majority?
III- Oculomotor
VII- Facial
IX- Glossopharyngeal
X- Vagus**** does the majority****
120
What are the orgins of the parasympathetic nerve fibers?
S2 and S3
121
Most preganglionic parasympathetic go where?
STRAIGHT to their organ
122
Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons are located where?
in the walls of the organs
123
***Someone has a cold and you want to dry them out, would you use an cholinergic or anti-cholinergic medication? Why?
Anti-cholinergic drug, because you want to block the parasympathetic system (aka mucus production)
124
Sympathetic preganglionic are what kind of neurotransmitter?
Cholinergic
125
Sympathic postganglionic neurotransmitters are what type?
Adrenergic
126
What type of neurotranmitters are used for sweat, blood vessels and piloerectors?
Cholinergic
127
Parasympathetic preganglionic neurotransmitters are what type?
Cholinergic
128
Parasympathetic postganglionic are what type of NT?
Cholinergic
129
Cholingergic correlated with what NT?
Acetylcholine
130
Adrenergic NT are correlated with what NT? What kind use this type?
Norepinephrine, sympathetic postganglionic
131
What are the 5 types of adrenergic receptors?
Alpha 1
Alpha 2
Beta 1
Beta 2
Beta 3
132
What are the 2 types of cholinergic receptors?
Muscarinic
Nicotinic
133
If all the receptors are beta receptors, then what NT will be a more effective excitant?
Epinephrine
134
Where are muscarinic receptors found?
on all effector cells that are stimulated by the postganglionic cholinergic nuerons
135
Alpha 1 receptors cause what kind of response?
136
What is the alpha 2 receptors response?
Pain, regulates sympathetic input from CNS to PNS- calm everything down
137
Beta 1 receptors cause what?
Cardiac and smooth muscles, ex: Blood pressure medication
Increased heart rate and and myocardial strenght
138
Beta 2 receptors causes what effect?
Bronchiodilation, acts on bronchial tree and visceral organs- causes organs to relax
Intestinal relaxation
Uterus relaxation
Bladder wall relaxation
139
Nicotinic receptors act on _____ and ______
Ganglions and skeletal muscles
140
Muscarinic receptors target _____ organs. Name them.
Visceral organs. DUMBBELS
- Defecation
- Urination
- Miosis
- Bradycardia
- Bronchospasm
- Emesis
- Lacrimation
- Salivation
141
Caloriegenesis and glycogenolysis is caused by what receptor?
Beta two
142
Where are Alpha two receptors located?
in the grey matter of the spinal cord
143
What does it do: Pupil of the eye: Sym and Parasympathetic
Sym: Dilation
Para: Slight relaxation- allows you to see further away
144
Describe what is happening during muscle soreness.
1. Minute tears in muscle tissue
2. Osmotic pressure changes causing edema around muscle.
3. Muscle spasms
4. Overstretching/tearing of muscle harness
5. Acute inflammation (the later part of working out)
6. Alteration in calcium regulation
Notable: lactic acid only causes initial soreness in working out
145
Why is your muscle sore approximately 1 hour after working out?
Due to latic acid
146
Why is your muscle sore approximately 4 hour after working out? (later part of working out)
Due to acute inflammation
147
Why is your muscle sore several days after working out?
Microtears in the muscle tissue
148
What is tonic receptor? Give some examples
Receptor that constantly transmits info to the brain
Muscle spindles
GTOs
Pain receptors
Chemoreceptors
Baroreceptors
149
Describe rate/phasic receptors. Give an example.
Transmits only when there is a CHANGE in stimulus
Pacinian corpuscle- they will stop transmitting the signal even if you keep pressing
150
T/F: Rate/Phasic receptors will send a new signal when you release the pressure
True
151
Also need to study the Lecture 4 deck for Nerve fiber types and Sensory Receptors. DO NOT FORGET!!!
DO NOT FORGET TO STUDY THE LECTURE 4 DECK
152
Primary/annulospiral & GTO are what type of nerve fiber classification?
A- Alpha
153
Secondary/flower spray are what type of nerve fiber classification?
A- Beta
154
Motor spindle are what type of nerve fiber classification?
A-Gama
155
Pricking pain are what type of nerve fiber classification?
A- Delta
156
What are the 3 sensations associated with C fibers?
Aching pain,
Cold and warm (temperature)
Crude touch/pressure
157
Describe a divergence signal pathway
Splitting up a single signal
When it occurs: Lots of fibers to excite leaving the pool.
Leads to prolonger output discharge
158
Describe a convergence signal pathway
Multiple inputs into a single neuron.
Summation
Reverbatory
159
Describe a reciprocal signal pathway
When one inhibits, the other contracts
Common in muscles
Rhythmical- found in the medulla
160
What is this?
Map of the somatosensory areas
161
How does an endocrine gland secrete their hormones?
Gland-> Blood-> Organ
162
Tell me what you know about a paracrine gland.
-can diffuse over a short distance
- works through the extracellular fluid
-targets neighboring cells of a DIFFERENT type
163
Tell me what you know about an autocrine
-Works through extracellular fluid
- IL-1
- signaling loop that promotoes metastasis
164
Tell me what you know about cytokines as it relates to med phys. What is the major example
can function as an autocrine, paracrine or endocrine hormones
Leptin
165
Name the 5 things that the endocrine system regulates
1. Metabolism
2. Growth & Development
3. Water & electrolyte balance
4. Reproduction
5. Behavior
166
What is the precursor to many steriod hormones? Name the 5 major ones.
Cholesterol
1. Cortisol- major one
2. Aldosterone- major one
3. Testosterone
4. Estrogen
5. Progesterone
167
T/F: Steroids are stored in the fat cells in the body
FALSE, steroids are fat soluble they are NOT STORED
168
The precursor to thyroid hormones & adrenal medulla hormones is ______
Tyrosine
169
T4 and T3 are incorporated into _____, then stored in large follicles within the thyroid gland
Thyroglobulin
170
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are secrete by _____. Which one is primary?
Adrenal medullae
Epinephrine
171
Corticotropin-releasing hormone. Origin? Structure?
causes release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Hypothalamus
Peptide
171
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Origin? Structure?
Stimulates secretion of thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin
Hypothalamus
Peptide
172
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). Origin? Structure?
Causes release of growth hormone
Hypothalamus
Peptide
173
Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (GHIH). Origin?
Inhibits release of growth hormone
Hypothalamus
174
What is another name for Growth Hormone Inhibitory hormone.
Somatostatin
175
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Origin?
Causes release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Hypothalamus
176
Dopamine or prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF). Origin? Structure?
Inhibits release of prolactin
Hypothalamus
Amine
177
_______ is a general extension of the hypothalamus
posterior pituitary
178
Where is the anti-diuretic hormone released from?
posterior pituitary
179
Growth hormone. Origin? Structure?
stimulates protein synthesis and overall growth of most cells and tissues
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
180
TSH. Origin? Structure?
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
181
ACTH. Origin? Structure?
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of the adrenocortical hormones
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
182
Prolactin. Origin? Structure?
Promotes development of the female breasts and secretion of milk
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
183
FSH. Origin? Structure?
Causes growth of follicles in the ovaries and sperm maturation in Sertoli cells of testes
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
184
LH. Origin? Structure?
Stimulates testosterone synthesis in Leydig cells of testes, stimulates ovulation, formation of corpus luteum and estrogen and progesterone synthesis in ovaries
Anterior Pituitary
Peptide
185
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). Origin? Structure?
Increases water reabsorption by the kidneys and causes vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure
Posterior Pituitary
Peptide
186
ADH is also called _____?
vasopressin
187
Oxytocin. Origin? Structure?
Stimulates milk ejection from breasts and uterine contractions
Posterior Pituitary
Peptide
188
Growth hormone works directly on.....
Adipose tissue (by releasing fats) and the liver (by releasing glucose)
189
Growth hormone works indirectly on......
metabolism via somatomedins (IGF1)
190
Somatomedins promote ______ and _______.
skeletal growth and protein synthesis
191
The release of GH is stimulated by:
Starvation
Hypoglycemia
Low concentrations of serum FAs
Exercise
Excitement
Trauma
Ghrelin (when you’re hungry, you’re Grouchy)
Early part of sleep
192
T4 and T3 have what effect on the body? Origin? Structure?
increase body metabolic rate by speeding up reactions
Thyroid
Amine
193
If TSH is high, what does this indicate? Name some symptoms
HYPOthyroidism
Cold, low energy, fatigued
194
If TSH is low, what does this indicate?
HYPERthyroidism
Excited and heated up
195
How does calcitonin work? Origin? Structure?
Lowers Serum Ca by depositing it onto bones. TONING down calcium.
Thyroid
Peptide
196
Cortisol. Origin? Structure?
Has multiple metabolic functions for controlling metabolism of proteins, carbs and fats. Some anti-inflammatory effects
Adrenal Cortex
Steroid
197
***ATCH comes from the anterior pituitary gland, Corticotropin RH comes from hypothalamus to AP, pit gland release ATCH, ATCH has action on adrenal gland cortex and adrenal gland releases steriods/cortisol and aldosterone
Know this pathway, Sheppard repeats it 3 times
198
Aldosterone. Origin? Structure?
Increases renal sodium reabsorption, potassium secretion and hydrogen ion secretion
Adrenal Cortex
Steroid
199
Zona Glomerulosa is what kind? and what hormone does it secrete (and synthesize)?
Mineralcorticoids
secretes aldosterone
200
Zona fasciculata is what kind? what does it secrete?
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol and androgens
201
Zona reticularis is what kind? What does it secrete?
Sex hormones
cortisol and androgens
202
Aldosterone is a _____ and regulated by ____ and _____.
Mineralcorticoid
AT2 and potassium levels
203
Aldosterone boosts _____ reabsorption in exchange for getting rid of ____ and _____.
Na
K and H+
204
_______ releases catecholamines
Adrenal Medulla
205
Insulin. Origin? Structure?
promotes glucose entry in many cells and in this way controls carbohydrate metabolism
Pancreas
Peptide
206
Glucagon. Origin? Structure?
increases synthesis and release of glucose from the liver into the body fluids
Pancreas
Peptide
207
Epinephrine and noepinephrine originate where?
Adrenal medulla
208
What does insulin do?
lowers blood glucose
209
What does glucagon do?
boosts glucose
210
Human Chorionic Gondadoptropin. Origin? Structure?
Promotes growth of corpus luteum and secretion of estrogens and progesterone by corpus luteum.
Placenta
Peptide
211
Renin. Origin? Structure?
First part of the RAAS, converting angiotensinogen to AT1
Kidney
Peptide
212
1,25- Dihydroxycholecalciferol. Origin? Structure?
Helps you absord Ca from the diet and bone mineralization.
Kidney
Sterioid
213
Erythropoietin. Origin? Structure?
Increases erythrocyte production, commonly known at EPO-> boosting RBCs
Kidney
PeptideAt
214
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP). Origin? Structure?
Increases sodium excretion
Heart
Peptide
215
Gastrin. Origin? Structure?
makes gastric acid
Stomach
Peptide
216
Secretin. Origin? Structure?
Secrete water and bicarb
Small Intestine
Peptide
217
Cholecystokinin (CCK). Origin? Structure?
Gallbladder contraction and release of pancreatic enzymes
Small intestine
Peptide
218
Leptin. Origin?
Inhibits appetite (opposite of ghrelin)
Adipocytes
Peptide
219
Name the 4 hormones that are derived from Cholesterol
1. Coritsol
2. Aldosterone
3. Any androgen
4. 1,25- Dihydroxycholecalciferol
220
Name the hormones that are derived from tyrosine
Epi
NE
Dopamine
T4/T3
221
_____ hormones boost all reaction, so they can work deep inside a cell
Thyroid
222
______ can pass through a cell membrane
Steroids
223
All the hormones at water soluble EXCEPT ___ and ______. What does this mean in terms of longevity?
Thyroid and steroids
Thyroids and steroids tend to last longer in the body
224
In terms of metabolism, hormones either ____ or ______.
are used up or get excreted
225
How can you tell human insulin from synthetic?
Measure C peptide amounts to check how much insulin is endogenous
226
Insulin is secreted by _____ cells in the islets of Langerhans that are squished in between ____ cells in the pancreas
Beta cells
acini cells
227
A B C chains are associated with what form of insulin? What process makes this?
Proinsulin form
RNA translation
228
Why does high blood glucose trigger the release of insulin?
1. High BG triggers beta cells, which have GLUT-2 channels.
2. The more glucose, the more ATP.
3. The more ATP, the more ATP-K+ channels we can close.
4. Once enough channels are closed, we depolarize the beta cell and Ca channels open, triggering insulin release.
229
During insulin release, High BG triggers beta cells, which have _____
Glut-2 channels
230
During insulin release, the more glucose, the _______
more ATP
231
During insulin release, the more ATP, the more ______ channels we can ____
ATP-K+
close
232
During insulin release, ______ the beta cell and ____ channels open, which triggers _____
depolarize
Ca
Insulin release
233
How does the insulin cause glucose to enter the cell?
1. Glucose naturally enters cells via GLUT-1, but not very fast.
2. Insulin binds to the outside alpha unit of its receptor, activating the inside beta unit.
3. Beta units activate a tyrosine kinase
4. TK activates the rest of the insulin receptor substrates, one of which activates GLUT-4 channels, which bring in more glucose.
234
What 4 things decrease insulin secretion?
Low BG
Fasting
Leptin
Exercise
235
Insulin effect, Glucose naturally enters cells via _____ but not very fast
Glut-1
236
Insulin effect, Insulin binds to the outside _____ unit of its receptor, activating the the inside ____ unit
alpha
beta
237
Insulin effect, beta units activate a ______.
Tyrosine kinase
238
Insulin effect, TK activates the rest of the insulin receptor substrates, one of which activates ______ channel, which does what?
Glut-4
Brings in more glucose
239
Why does Victoza (and other similiar sulfonylurea drugs) work?
Suppressed liver glycogenolysis (when the liver breaks down glucose and dumps it in the blood, aka stops this process from happening)
Increases insulin
decreases gastric emptying
240
How is hearing transmitted?
1. Sound causes TM to move.
2. Malleus, Incus, Stapes conducts sound to the oval window.
3. Vibrations enter at oval window, specifically the scala vestibuli and make fluid move along.
4. Higher frequency = a wave with more oscillation
5. Hair cells get moved by the vibrations
6. Nerve fibers get stimulated by hair cells
7. Nerve fibers depolarize the cochlear nerve.
241
What are the 3 semicircular canals that control equilibrium?
Utricle
Saccule
Ampulla
242
______ are found on hair cells. What do they detect?
Sterocilia, detects acceleration and deceleration
243
_____ are horizontal in an upright position
Utricle
244
_____ are vertical in a lying down position
Saccule
245
______ are involved with equilibrium during rotational movement
Ampulla
246
