memory Flashcards

Question

## Footnote ***How does the 'how' effect this?***

Answer 1

" ***Where not How?*** - The CE solves the problem of how different areas solve different problems in the STM - but this is a where not a 'how'! "

Answer 2

" '***How' again*** - Does not explain how the slave-systems work. All they have said is the where. - t "

Answer 3

" ***HM*** - Was unable to make new memories and yet could still grasp a concept or define an object (semantic). For example he could pet a dog and forget it half an hour later but still tell you what a dog is. This supports Tulving's theory because it shows that there are separate stores in the LTM. ***Clive Wearing*** - Unable to learn new music but could still read sheet music and play the piano with ease (procedural). "

Answer 4

" ***Control*** - There is a lack of control over many variables in the clinical studies of HM and Clive Wearing so cannot be perfect. "

Answer 5

" ***Cues*** - These 'trigger' information that enables us to access a memory. They can be internal or external. "

Answer 6

" ***Real-Life Applications*** - Baddeley stated that even though context does not seem to have a small effect it should still be payed attention. For example when eye witnesses go back to the crime screen it improves their recall. "

Answer 7

" ***Questioning Context Effects*** - Baddedley(1997) argues that context effects are actually not very strong and have to be very significantly different before the effect can be seen. This is a limitation for the theory as it means that real-life applications for retrieval failure don't explain much about forgetting. "

Answer 8

" ***Evidence for Laboratory Experiment***- This is one of the most consistently demonstrated findings in the whole of psychology. There have been thousands of lab experiments and most of these show that retro and pro interference are common ways we forget things from the LTM. This is a strength because lab experiments have high control over extraneous variables, making this a valid conclusion for forgetting. "

Answer 9

" ***Artificial Materials (******construct validity******) -*** There is a greater chance that interference will occur in a lab experiment than in real life. Most of the experiments used word lists and these, despite being more realistic than number lists or consonant syllables, are still far from the types of memories we forget in every-day life. This is a limitation of this study because the use of artificial tasks increases the chance for interference and therefore cannot be seen as an explanation for forgetting outside of the lab. "

Answer 10

" * Police ask a series of questions in order to gain information that will lead to the prosecution of the criminal. * This often includes asing the individual specific,targetted questions in order to get the key information that can get them looking for the criminal in the shortest period of time. * This may also include the presentation of photographs or ID early on to check whether the EW can identify the person. "

Answer 11

" This process is quick and allows for incarceration to occcur faster than it would in a CI - there are also years of experience attached to this method, possibly providing inter-rater reliablitly. "

Answer 12

" However this is an unreliable method as it can lead to false information being remebered possibly leading to a collapse in cases at trial or potential misscariages of justice. "

Answer 13

" **Fisher and Gieselman(1992)** argued that EWT can be improved if the police were to use certian techniques. These techniques should be based on psychological insights into how the memory works which are now called cognitive interviews. **The 4 Main Techniques** 1. ***Report Everything*** - They are encouraged to include every part of the event, even what might seem irrelevant. Trivial details may trigger more important memories. 1. ***Reinstate the Context*** - The witness should return to the original crime scene 'in their mind' or by replicating the emotional state (context-dependent forgetting as there are not the necessary external cues to remember). 1. ***Reverse the Order*** - Events should be recalled in a different ofer to that which they chronologically happened in as this stops the witness from reporting what they assume must have happened and can also make sure if they are giving a true confession. 1. ***Change Perspective*** - Witness should recall the event from another person's point of view which will stop expectations and schema's from taking over their recall. Can also lessen the effects of anxiety on the testimony. "

Answer 14

" Geiselman et al (1985) had p/pants watch a violent crime and after 48 hours were interviews by a police officer -using three different methods. The cognitive interview, the standard interview and a hypnosis. The average number of recalled facts: * Cognitive Interview - 41.2 * Standard Interview - 29.4 * Hypnosis - 38.0 However there was no change in how much incorrect information was recalled depending on the technique used. This shows that the cognitive interview is more effective for the recall of an event and therefore can produce more accurte testimonies. "

Answer 15

" **Fisher et al (1987)** developed some additional elements for the CI, centering around the social interactions of the interview.For example when to establish eye contact or not which would effect the anxiety, distraction and witness speaking speed. Open ended questions can also have an increasingly positive effect in these situations. "

Answer 16

" ***Some Elements may be More Valuable than Others*** - Milne and Bull (2002) found that each element of the CI was equally valuable however they also found that using a combination of 'Report Everything' and 'Context Reinstatement' lead to the most effective overall recall. This is a strength for Fisher and Geiselman (1992) as it shows that at least two elements have a validity to be used in police interviews. Therefore these two factors could be used to improve the accuracy of the standard interview and also have strong inter-rater reliability. "

Answer 17

" ***Support for the Effectiveness of ECI*** - The ECI may offer alternative enhanced benefits such as Kohnken et al (1999)'s meta analysis of 50 studies that consistently showed that the CI produced more accurate accounts than compared standard police interviews. Therefore the practicality of this theory is proved and definately improves the prosecution of criminals, benefitting society as a whole. "

Answer 18

" ***The CI is time- consuming*** - It would take much longer to conduct than a standard police interview and therefore it is not appealing, especially when they have limited time to get hold of the information. Police can also not afford this amount of in depth training for every officer (Kebbell & Wagstaff 1996). This makes it unlikely that the CI will be used as it has low practicallity for real-life application "

Answer 19

" ***Variations of the CI are used*** - The use of the CI has definite differences every time it is present in a study or real-life practice therefore there is not as much control over extranious varibles that may be present in some of the 'credible studies' as you cannot be certain how these minute changes may effect the effectubility of the CI. Therefore this criticism challenges the reliability of the CI when it is being observed from different circumstances. "

Answer 20

" ***CI Creates and Increase in Innacurate Information*** - Despite the CI claiming to improve the efficiency of recall it may also increase the inncorrect re collection of false details. Kohnken et al (1999) found an 81% increase in correct information but also found a 61% increase in incorrect information (false positive) when compared to the standard interview. Therefore this increase in missinformation may negatively impact the effectiveness of CI in abtianing the information needed to prosecute. "

Answer 21

" ***Youth*** - The CI cannot be applied to young children or adults with child like minds because they respond to the same question being asked repeatedly by changing the information they give thinking it will please the interviewer. This is because they assume that the information they gave previously was incorrect - why else would the same queson be asked again? Therefore this makes this method less effective at obtaining accurate testimonies. "

Answer 22

" Independent measures. "

Answer 23

" Laboratory "

Answer 24

" ***Procedure*** - People were asked to watch a video and then were given questions to answer about this. But before the questions were asked they were sat with another p/pant that had watched a different video (unknown to both parties). They then looked to see if the p/pant remembered events that had not occurred. "

Answer 25

" ***Findings*** -P/pants genuinly believed that they had witnessed events that had not occurred. In fact 71% of the p/pants mistakenly recalled aspects that they had not seen compared with the 0% of false memories created in the control group. Gabbot et al concluded that witnesses must go along with each others views, supposedly for social approval or because they believe the other is right/wrong. This phenomena is called memory conformity. "

Answer 26

" ***Procedure*** - P/pants were shown a video of a car crash and then asked them questions. The questions asked were split into different categories of leading questions about how fast the car was going. For example 'hit', 'bumped', 'contacted,'smashed' and 'collided'. They then recorded how each group rated the speed and compared it across the verb used. "

Answer 27

" ***Findings*** - The mean speed was recorded and they found that each p/pant was biased by the verb used in the leading question. Therefore EWT can be impacted by the questions asked. (refer to bar chart) "

Answer 28

" ***Real-life Application*** - A strength of this experiment is that it has important practical uses in the real world. The consequences of EWT. Loftus also believed that leading questions can effect witness testimonies. "

Answer 29

" ***Clifasefi et al (2013)*** - They attempted to implant a memory into p/pants that never occurred. In this case that they had once got horrifically drunk on a specific drink with documents to prove this. P/pants were given a questionnaire before this which was claiming to be a 'food profile' that in the end had no true connections to the p/pant's 'results'. P/pants were then asked a leading question at the end about if they could remember a time when they had become sick from drinking to much alcohol. A significant numbered recalled being sick from alcohol before the age of 16 - proving that the researchers had created a false memory. Additionally they now began to associate certain types of alcohol they did not like with this 'false memory'. "

Answer 30

" ***Artificial Task*** - Loftus and Palmer used film clips of car accidents, these would not create the same emotional effect as being involved in a real car accident. There has also been research to show that emotions can have an increased impact on the accurate recall of memory. This limits the study because it can then not be applied to realistic situations or when giving EWT. "

Answer 31

" ***Individual Differences*** - There is evidence that older people are less reliable than younger people giving EWT. For example Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that those in the age groups of 55-78 were less reliable than the 18-25 and 35-45 category. However they did also find that each group was able to identify their own age group with higher accuracy. Researchers often use younger people to identify in these videos which may means that the age groups may not be worse in fact. "

Answer 32

" ***Demand Characteristics*** - Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argued that the answers given in EWT studies were demand characteristics. p/pants want to appear helpful and so will guess at the answer they think is more likely to be right even if they don't know. Therefore this lowers the validity of the experiments. "

Answer 33

" ***Consequences of EWT*** -Foster et al (1994) pointed out that these testimonies in research studies are not as important as real-life cases. "

Answer 34

" Coding - the way \process in which information is stored in various ways. Capacity - the amount of information that can be stored Duration - how long the information can be stored "

Answer 35

" STM - a brief memory store LTM - a store that lasts for a long time "

Answer 36

" Aim: To research the semantic encoding of LTM "

Answer 37

" Procedure : Presented p/pants with four lists to remember List 1 : ones that aucoustically sound simailar List 2: Ones that sound dissimilar List 3: Semantic meanings List 4: Semantic with dissimilar meanings P/pants had to recall as many words as possible after being given 30 seconds to memorize them. They would then try again 20 minutes later. "

Answer 38

" Found that the immediate recall was better for list 2 than for list one and that there was very little difference between the recall of list 3 and 4. When they were asked to recall the words aftre 20 minutes they recalled list 4 better than list 3. There was little difference between 1 and 2. ![]()"

Answer 39

" ***Anxiety*** - a feeling of worry,nervousness, or unease about something with an uncertain outcome. "

Answer 40

" Anxiety has a negative effect on recall as it creates psychological activities that prevent us from paying attention to important cues. The most common way to study anxiety and EWT has been looking at the effect of weapons which can impact the accuracy of recall. "

Answer 41

" ***Procedure*** - Made p/pants believe they were taking part in a laboratory experiment but while they were sitting in a waiting room (the 'low anxiety' setting) they heard an arguement in the other room. A man then walked into the waiting room. In the first condidtion he held a pen with grease on his hands and in the second he held a knife(letter opener) covered in blood ('high anxiety condition'). "

Answer 42

" ***Findings*** - The p/pant later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos which he may or may not be in, 49% were able to identify the man carrying the pen from these photos. However only 33% who saw him carrying the knife identified him accurately. This explanation is called the **tunnel theory explanation** and states that an individual will pay more attention to the weapon as it is the source of anxiety. "

Answer 43

" ***Design*** - Quasi/Natural Experiment using independant measures. ***Procedure*** - Assessed the levels of anxiety in visitors by having those on the ride wear heart monitors so that they could measure this throught thier hear rate. They were the catagorised as having either low or high anxiety. In the labyrinth they found an actor who they were later asked to recall details about. Those with higher anxiey recalled less than those with the lower levels. ***Findings*** - High anxiety had the lowest recall rate of 17%. Whereas those with low anxiety recalled around 75%. This supports J&S but goes against the findings of Y and C. "

Answer 44

" ***Procedure*** - Yuille & Cutshall (1986) conducted a study with a real - life gun shooting in Vancouver. The shop owner shot a thief dead and there were 21 witnesses - 13 of whom agree to take part in the study. The interviews took place 4-5 months after the incident. They were then compared with the original police interviews and accuracy was determined by some mail details. They were also asked to rate their anxiety on this occasion using 7-point scale as well as being asked about more recent effects in their mental state that may be linked. "

Answer 45

" ***Feild studies*** ***offer a Lack of*** ***Control*** - Researchers interview people after a real life event. in this time period there may have been many PED's. This limits the theory as it leaves the presence of possible extraneous variables. Therefore it is impossible to tell if anxiety is the direct effect instead of one of these extraneous variables. "

Answer 46

" Yerkes and Dodson (1908) concluded that the relationship between emotional arousal and performance which seems to follow an 'inverted U'. (refer to graph) ![]()"

Answer 47

" ***The Graph for Yerkes- Dodson Law is too Simplistic -*** Anxiety is difficult to measure as there are many different factors that effect it, such as behavioural, emotional and physical. but this model assumes that only the psychological factor plays a role. "

Answer 48

" He applied the Yerkes-Dodson Law to EWT. Lower levels of anxiety provide lower levels of recall accuracy. But memory becomes more accurate as the level of anxiety increases (refer to graph). However the level of anxiety does have an optimal point which is seen as the point of maximum accuracy. "

Answer 49

" ***Weapon focus may not be*** ***Relevent*** - J&S's study may have ended up testing suprise rather than the presence of a weapon as an effect. It has been suggested that rather than being scared the p/pants were just recognising something out of the norm. Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet and raw chicken as the items held in a hair salon video. Recall was significantly smaller in unusual situations - eg. chicken and handgun. This suggests that anxiety and threat from a weapon does not effect EWT. "

Answer 50

" ***Ethical Issues*** - Creating anxiety in p/pants could lead to negative effects such as psychological harm. This is why psychologist will use real life events as they do not have to induce that stressful scenario. Therefore this questions the need for this research and whether it is ethically non-viable. "

Answer 51

" ***Demand Characteristics*** - Most laboratory experiments show the p/pants a filmed video and the p/pants are likely to be aware of this. Most will then be able to work out the sort of questions they will be expected to answer. Therefore these are not the instinctual responses of the p/pants and are a display of DCs. "

Answer 52

Bahrick et al (1975) found that most students could remember their classmate's names and faces 50 years after they had graduated.

Answer 53

Iconic - visual, Echoic - sound, Haptic - touch, Gustatory - Taste, Olfactory - smell

Answer 54

Spearling, recall of a 20 letter row flashed for ½0th of a second was high .'. there is a large capacity

Answer 55

Jacobs 1887, recall on lists was about 7-9 numbers .'. the STM

Answer 56

Wagnaar (1986) had a diary of 2400 events and found after one year he could recall 75% and after 5 years only 45% .'. there is a long capacity in the storage of the LTM

Answer 57

When witnessing a crime anxiety is aroused is the body meaning the the flight or fight response is triggered which has the side effect of improving our memory.

Answer 58

***Findings*** - The witnesses were incredibly accurate in their answers and little changed over the 5 month period apart form colours and estimates of age/weight/height. Those who stated the highest anxiety rates were the most accurate (88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group).

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