Memory

Question 1

Long term memory (LTM)

Answer 1

A permanent store holding limitless amounts of information for long periods.

Question 2

Short term memory (STM)

Answer 2

A temporary store holding small amounts of information received by the senses (senses = sight, smell, touch, audio, taste, kinaesthesis (feel)

Question 3

Coding

Answer 3

Describes how information enters our memory system from sensory input.

Question 4

Duration

Answer 4

The length of time information remains within storage.

Question 5

Capacity

Answer 5

The amount of information that can be stored at a given time.

Question 6

Interference

Answer 6

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.

Question 7

Proactive Interference

Answer 7

Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when then memories are similar.

Question 8

Retroactive Interference

Answer 8

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Question 9

McGeoch and McDonald (1931)

Answer 9

Procedure:
Giving participant a list of 10 adjectives to recall until they achieved 100%.
Then they were split up into six groups where they were given a different second list:
1. synonyms
2. antonyms
3. unrelated words to the original ones
4. consonant syllables
5. three-digit numbers
6. no new list

Findings:
When participants recalled the original list, their performance depended on the nature of the second list.
Synonyms produced the worst recall. The group with no new list performed the best.
Therefore, interference is strongest when the memories are similar.

Question 10

Sensory Register

Answer 10

The memory store for each of our five senses.
sight
hearing
smell
taste
touch

Question 11

What are the 3 parts of the Multi-Store Model?

Answer 11

Sensory Register
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

Question 12

What is the science word for the store of visual coding?

Answer 12

iconic memory

Question 13

What is the science word for the store of acoustically coding?

Answer 13

echoic memory

Question 14

How does the MSM suggest information are transferred from STM to LTM?

Answer 14

Maintenance rehearsal describes the process of repeating material to ourselves. As long as we repeat it, it stays in the STM. If we rehearse it long enough, it goes over into LTM.

Question 15

What are the two coding parts of the sensory register?

Answer 15

Iconic memory
Echoic memory

Question 16

What are the 3 types of LTM?

Answer 16

Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory

Question 17

Outline semantic memory

Answer 17

• Our knowledge of the world.
• Memories are not time stamped
• These are not personal memories
• These information can be factual or abstract

Question 18

Outline procedural memory

Answer 18

• Memory of actions or skills
• implicit automatic
• Memories are not time stamped
• No conscious awareness
• It is difficult to explain to others

Question 19

Outline episodic memory

Answer 19

• The ability to recall event from our lives
• Memories are time stamped
• they contain specific details of the event
• there is a context to the event
• emotions are involved
• A conscious effort is necessary to recall these memories

Question 20

Who put forward the Working Memory Model?

Answer 20

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Question 21

What are the key facts about the WMM

Answer 21

• Used when working on complex tasks which requires you to store information as you go along.
• It is a storage and process in one
• It has limited capacity

Question 22

What are the 5 parts of the WMM?

Answer 22

Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Central executive
Episodic buffer
Long-term memory

Question 23

What does the Phonological Loop does? (WMM)

Answer 23

• Responsible for processing sound-based information
• Capacity = It can only focus on one thing at a time
• Coding is acoustic
• duration is about 2 seconds

Two sup-sections:
Articulatory Control System
- inner voice (allows maintenance rehearsal)

Phonological Store
- inner ear (stores sound information)

Question 24

What are the functions of the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad? (WMM)

Answer 24

It is the “inner eye”
- Stores visual and/or spatial information if required
- Coding is visual and spatial
- Capacity is 3 to 4 objects

Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into
- Visual cache (stores visual data)
- Inner scribe (records arrangement of objects in visual field)

Question 25

What are the functions of the Central Executive? (WMM)

Answer 25

• It is in control of the Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketchpad (slave systems)
• It decides what we pay attention to
• Coding is flexible
• Capacity is very limited

Question 26

What are “slave systems”?

Answer 26

Slave systems are controlled by the Central Executive.

The two slave systems are:
Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad

Question 27

Who added the Episodic Buffer to the WMM and why?

Answer 27

Added by Baddeley (2000) because the WMM could not explain how LTMs can be brought into or working memory. Also how sound and visual information could be integrated.

Question 28

What are the function of the Episodic Buffer? (WMM)

Answer 28

• A temporary store for information
• Capacity is about 4 chunks
• Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from other stores
• Coding is flexible
• It links working memory (STM) with LTM
• Maintains sense of time sequencing (recording events that are happening)

Question 29

Outline Baddeley and Hitch´s study into memory (WMM)

Answer 29

Procedure:
Participants were asked to perform 2 task at the same time (dual task technique). A digit task required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions.

Results:
As the number of digits increased in the digit span task, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer – only fractions of a second. And they did not make any more errors in the verbal reasoning task as the number of digits increased.

Conclusion:
The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive, and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.

Question 30

Evaluate the WMM

Answer 30

Strengths:
- supportive evidence (KF case study)
- dual task performance studies support the idea of a VSS (Baddeley et al, 1975)
- support of brain scan studies

Limitations:
- the Central Executive might need further explanation rather than only “attention” and “control”

Question 31

Outline the case study of KF by Warrington an Shallice (1969)

Answer 31

KF experienced difficulties in recalling and retaining verbal material (digits, words or sentences). However, his nonverbal memory remained relatively intact, as he performed well on visual and spatial tasks.
Tests indicated a specific deficit in his ability to hold and manipulate verbal information in short-term memory.

This case study challenged theories about the unitary nature of short-term memory.

Question 32

Outline Braver et al. (1997) research

Answer 32

Procedure:
He asked participants to do task while they were having a brain scan. These tasks involved the Central Executive which activities are seen in the area of the prefrontal cortex.

Findings:
He found that the harder the activity became, the more activity in the prefrontal cortex.

Conclusion:
These results provide evidence of the functions of the CE and that it may even have a physical reality in the brain.

Question 33

Name and define the two explanations of forgetting

Answer 33

Interference theory
- forgetting occurs when one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten

Retrieval failure
- we forget because when we try to recall information, there are no sufficient cues

Question 34

Explain the Interference Theory as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 34

Proactive interference (pro = forward)
- Old memory interferes with a new memory. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Retroactive interference (retro = backward)
- Newer memory interferes with an older memory. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.

Question 35

Explain Retrieval Failure as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 35

When information are placed in memory, there are cues associated with what we store.

Internal cues = bodily cues inside of us (mood, emotions)
External cues = external cues in the environment (smell, place)

Encoding specificity principle (ESP)
- an individual´s recall of material is enhanced when the conditions they are attempting to remember it matches those of when they originally learned it.

Question 36

Evaluate the Interference Theory as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 36

Strengths:
- support of lab studies (McGeoch and McDonald)
- support from real-life studies (Baddeley and Hitch)

Limitations:
- limited real life application of the results of the studies (artificial material such as consonant syllables were used)
- the studies often try to create a maximum of interference when they ask participants to learn a lot in a short period of time (unrealistic)
- interference might not be a complete explanation and cues should be taken into account (Tulving and Psotka)

Question 37

Outline Baddeley and Hitch (1977) research into explanations of forgetting

Answer 37

Aim:
to investigate retroactive interference in everyday memory

Procedure:
Rugby players who had played the whole season and rugby players who missed some games were asked to recall the names of the teams they had played against earlier in the season.

Findings:
The players who had played the most games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played fewer games.

Conclusion:
This was the result of retroactive interference, as learning new information (new team names) interfered with the memory of old information (earlier team names).

Question 38

Outline Tulving and Psotka´s (1971) research into explanations of forgetting

Answer 38

Procedure:
participants were given word lists to remember with one condition having category heading and another without.

Findings:
In conditions without category headings, fewer words were recalled than when headings were present showing the information was available but simply unable to be accessed due to the absence of cues.

Question 39

Outline Godden and Baddeley´s (1975) sea diver study on context-dependent forgetting

Answer 39

Procedure:
Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and were then asked to recall the words either underwater or on land.

4 conditions:
- Learn on land – recall on land
- Learn on land – recall underwater
- Learn underwater – recall underwater
- Learn underwater – recall in land
In 2 conditions learning and recall environment were matched.

Findings:
Accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions. This was because the external cues were different at learning and recalling.

Question 40

Outline Carter and Cassaday´s (1998) research into state-dependent forgetting

Answer 40

Procedure:
They gave participants anti-histamine drugs (used to relieve high fewer symptoms). These had a mild sedative effect making the participants slightly drowsy. Creates a physiological state that is different from the normal state of being awake and alert.
Participants had to learn a list of words and passages and then recall the information.

4 conditions:
- Learn on drug – recall on drug
- Learn on drug – recall not on it
- Learn not on drug – recall not on it
- Learn not on drug – recall on it

Findings:
In participants were there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance was significantly worse in terms of recalling the list of words. So when the cues are absent, there is more forgetting.

Question 41

Explain misleading information as a part of EWT

Answer 41

Leading questions:
A question where there is information included in the question that may prompt or encourage the witness to a specific answer - they can lead to inaccuracy

Question 42

Outline Loftus and Palmer´s (1974) research into Leading Questions (EWT)

Answer 42

Procedure:
45 students watched film clips of car accidents and then answered questions about speed. Critical question: “About how fast were the care going when they hit each other?”
They were divided in 5 groups, each given a different verb in the critical question.

Findings:
Smashed = 41
collided = 39
Bumped = 37
Hit = 33
Contacted = 32

Conclusion:
The leading questions biased eyewitnesses to recall the event differently.

Question 43

Evaluate Loftus and Palmer´s research

Answer 43

The research lacks mundane realism, as the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident, and so the research lacks ecological validity.

Sample bias – students are not representative and they also have less driving experience which makes it more difficult for them to estimate speeds.

The study is easy to replicate due to the controlled setting (lab study) and the standardized procedure.

Question 44

Evaluate Baddeley and Hitch´s study into forgetting

Answer 44

• investigates a very specific type of forgetting (similar information)
• is has high ecological validity as it is carried out in a real-life (field experiment)

Question 45

Outline Keppel and Underwood´s (1962) research into interference

Answer 45

Aim:
to investigate the effect of proactive interference on long-term memory

Procedure:
Participants were presented with meaningless three-letter consonant trigrams at different intervals (3, 6, 9 seconds, etc). To prevent rehearsal the participants had to count backwards in threes before recalling.

Findings:
participants typically remembered the trigrams that were presented first, irrespective of the interval length

Conclusion:
Proactive interference occurred, as memory for the earlier consonants, which had transferred to long-term memory, was interfering with the memory for new consonant, due to similarity of the information presented.

Question 46

Explain what is meant by “Post-Event Discussion (PED)” - EWT

Answer 46

A discussion that witnesses engage in after the crime which could result in contamination of the original testimony as witnesses combine their own recall with someone else´s. Some people conform because they want to be right.

Question 47

Outline Gabber et al. research (2003) into Post-Event Discussion

Answer 47

Procedure:
Paired participants watched a video of the same crime, but filmed so each participant could see elements in the event that the other could not.
Both participants discussed what they had seen on the video before individually completing a test of recall.

Findings:
71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video but had picked up in the post-event discussion.
In a control group, where there was no discussion, there were no errors.

Question 48

Evaluate misleading information as a part of EWT

Answer 48

Strengths:
- real life application (police officers have to be more careful)

Limitations:
- Loftus and Palmer used artificial material (Yuille and Cutshall suggest that in real life recall is very accurate)
- there may be individual differences of the accuracy of EWT (younger better than older people)
- Lab studies often suffer from demand characteristics

Question 49

Outline Yuille and Cutshall´s research into EWT

Answer 49

Aim:
To investigate the accuracy of recall of eye witnesses to a real crime, in response to leading questions and over time.

Procedure:
21 witnesses were interviewed by the police immediately after the event.
13 of those agreed to participate in the research interview 4-5 months later.
In both interviews they had to give their account of what happend and then answer following questions.
The researcher asked 2 misleading questions.
Participants also needed to say how they felt.

Findings:
Misleading questions had little effect on recall.
Participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (88% to 75%)

Conclusion:
Real eye witnesses are very reliable.
Those directly involved in the event remembered more than in lab studies.
However, it is difficult to generalise because of the small sample.

Question 50

Explain the Weapon Focus Effect as a part of EWT

Answer 50

When a crime involves a weapon, if often attracts the attention of eyewitnesses. The anxiety associated with the weapon may affect the accuracy of the recall of the event.

Question 51

Outline Johnson and Scott´s (1976) research into anxiety in EWT

Answer 51

Aim:
To investigate if high levels of anxiety affect recall.

Procedure:
Participants sat in a waiting room believing they were going to take part in a lab study. Each participant heard an argument in the next room.
There were 2 conditions:
- Low-anxiety condition: a man then walked through the waiting room carrying a pen with grease on his hand
- High-anxiety condition: the heated argument was accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. A man then walked through the waiting room holding a paper knife covered in blood.

Participants then asked to identify man form 50 photographs

Findings:
49% accuracy in identifying the man in the low-anxiety condition, and 33% accuracy in the high-anxiety condition.

Conclusion:
The findings support the idea of a weapon focus effect.

Question 52

Explain the Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 52

They argue that the relationship between performance and arousal/stress of curvilinear rather than linear.

Support - Deffenbacher (1983)
Lower anxiety level did produce lower levels of recall accuracy. Recall accuracy increases with anxiety up to an optimal point. A drastic decline in accuracy is seen when an eyewitness experiences more anxiety than the optimal point.

Question 53

Evaluate anxiety as a part of EWT

Answer 53

Limitations:
- Johnson and Scott may test surprise rather than anxiety (weapon effect only occurs because it is unusual - Pickel, 1998)
- Field studies lack control of variable (post-event discussion could have happend)
- Ethical issues with lab studies (unnecessary anxiety)
- the inverted-U explanation is too simplistic (emotional, cognitive and physical elements play a role)
- Lab studies are likely to suffer from demand characteristics

Question 54

Define standard interview

Answer 54

• Closed questions
• Brief questions
• Minimal free recall
• Interruptions and distractions are likely to occur

Question 55

Define cognitive interview

Answer 55

A questioning technique used by the police to enhance the retrieval of information about a crime scene from the eyewitness’s and victim’s memory.

Question 56

Outline the 4 stages of the cognitive interview

Answer 56

They are designed to stimulate as many cues as possible in order to maximise different retrieval routes.

1. Report everything - seemingly irrelevant details could trigger other memories
2. Reinstate the context - mentally recreate the environment (context-dependent forgetting)
3. Reverse the order - it is harder for the eye witness to produce an untrue accident in reverse order (no schemas)
4. Change perspective - the participants should recall incident from various perspectives

Question 57

Evaluate the cognitive interview

Answer 57

Strengths:
- useful elements (combination of report everything and reinstate context)
- supportive research (Köhnken et al.)

Limitations:
- time consuming
- the cognitive interview can vary in techniques each person uses (inconsistent research)
- CI also increases inaccurate information (Köhnken et al.)

Question 58

Evaluate the cognitive interview

Answer 58

Strengths:
- useful elements (combination of report everything and reinstate context)
- supportive research (Köhnken et al.)

Limitations:
- time consuming
- the cognitive interview can vary in techniques each person uses (inconsistent research)
- CI also increases inaccurate information (Köhnken et al.)

Question 59

Baddeley´s research into coding in STM and LTM

Answer 59

Procedure:
Participant needed to recall a list of five words either acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words or semantically dissimilar words.

Findings:
Immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar words = STM is acoustic
Recall after 20 minutes was worse with semantically similar words = LTM is semantic

Limitation:
- Baddeley used not unmeaningful material (meaning increases recall)

Question 60

Jacobs´ research into capacity of STM

Answer 60

Procedure:
443 female students
Digit span: A researcher read four digits and increases until the participant cannot recall the order correctly.

Findings:
On average, participants could repeat back 9,3 numbers and 7,3 letters in the correct order immediately after they were presented.

Limitation:
- the research is too old which increases the chance of extraneous variable being less controled

Question 61

Peterson and Peterson´s research into duration of STM

Answer 61

Procedure:
24 students were given a consonant syllable to (e.g. YCG) to remember and a 3-digit number to count backwards for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.

Findings:
The average recall with a 3-second interval was about 80%.
The average recall with a 18-seconds interval was about 3%
This suggests that the duration of STM without rehearsal is about 18-30 seconds.

Limitation:
- only used artificial stimuli (no real life memory)

Question 62

Bahrick et al. research into duration of LTM

Answer 62

Procedure:
392 Americans aged between 17 and 74.
Recognition test: 50 photos from participants´ high school yearbook
Free recall test: participants listed names of their graduating class

Findings:
Participants tested 48 years after graduation were about 70% accurate in photo recognition. Free recall was less accurate.
This suggests that photos/visualisation helps us to remember things.

Strength:
- high external validity (meaningful memories)