methods: case studies of brain-damaged patients and the use of qualitative data

Question 1

what is the case study research method?

Answer 1

• gathers in-depth and detailed data
• uses many data sources
• combines different research methods
• examples: interviews, questionnaires, observations, case history (like a patient)

Question 2

what type of data do case studies gather and how?

Answer 2

• mainly gathers qualitative data for depth and detail
• can also include quantitative data if tests/experiments are used
• example: IQ test for quantitative data

Question 3

what is one way of using different research methods in case study?

Answer 3

• triangulation
• involves using different research methods (e.g. observation and interview)
• helps develop themes from gathered data
• if data from different sources are similar, they reinforce each other
• increases reliability of the findings

Question 4

who was henry molaison (hm) and what happened to him?

Answer 4

• suffered brain injury from surgery to treat epileptic seizures
• lost memory during surgery in August 1953 at age 27
• operation performed by William Scoville who removed HM’s hippocampus

Question 5

what were the effects of hm’s surgery and how was it studied?

Answer 5

• surgery reduced seizures but caused severe memory loss
• referred to wilder penfield and brenda milner for assessment
• hippocampus is key for consolidating memories, so its removal was devastating
• hm became ideal amnesia case: injury was localised, personality and intelligence stayed intact

Question 6

what types of amnesia did hm have and what were the effects?

Answer 6

• had anterograde amnesia: couldn’t make new memories after surgery
• had retrograde amnesia: couldn’t recall some past events before surgery
• couldn’t remember new names, faces, events or information

Question 7

what was unusual about hm’s ability to learn after surgery?

Answer 7

• could learn new skills
• had no memory of learning or doing them
• showed that procedural memory was still working despite amnesia

Question 8

how did hm’s retrograde amnesia affect his memory?

Answer 8

• couldn’t recall memories from 19 months to 11 years before surgery
• at age 27, could only remember some events after age 16, almost none after 25
• retrograde amnesia may be linked to epilepsy medication and seizures, not just surgery

Question 9

how did hm contribute to psychological research during and after his life?

Answer 9

• took part in many interviews giving qualitative data on memory and cognition
• helped show which cognitive functions were intact or impaired
• after death, his brain was donated to research
• brain was cut into over 2000 segments at the brain observatory in San Diego

Question 10

what happened to hm during surgery and what were the effects?

Answer 10

• had severe epilepsy, surgery removed two-thirds of hippocampus
• only 2cm left, but it was non-functional
• epilepsy cured, but lost ability to make new episodic memories
• couldn’t live independently
• could learn new motor skills (procedural memory still worked)
• studied extensively throughout his life

Question 11

what does hm’s case tell us about memory systems?

Answer 11

• supports idea that stm and ltm are separate (from multi-store model)
• shows ltm has different types: semantic, episodic, procedural
• episodic memory needs hippocampus, but procedural does not
• proves msm is too simple – ltm isn’t just one store
• hm could retrieve old memories, showing encoding and retrieval use different brain areas

Question 12

who was kf and what happened to him?

Answer 12

• Shallice and Warrington
• had motorbike accident at age 17, surgery caused brain damage
• damage in left parietal-occipital cortex
• developed epilepsy at age 19
• at age 28, tested with overall iq 113, but verbal iq 79
• good memory for daily and past events
• couldn’t repeat verbal info, digit span only 1
• visual info (like numbers/letters) easier, digit span 3–4

Question 13

what does kf’s case tell us about stm and memory models?

Answer 13

• supports that stm and ltm are separate (from multi-store model)
• shows there are at least two types of stm: verbal and visual
• msm is too simple, only shows one stm store
• supports working memory model by baddeley and hitch
• stm has phonological loop (verbal) and visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual)

Question 14

who was cw and what does his case show about memory?

Answer 14

• had severe brain infection causing damage to the hippocampus
• completely unable to form new memories, memory lasts only 30 seconds
• no memory of life before brain damage, except his love for his second wife
• can play piano, showing procedural memory is intact
• can learn new skills and some facts through procedural memory
• example: could anticipate film content after watching without remembering it

Question 15

what does cw’s case show about memory systems?

Answer 15

• supports STM and LTM being separate (from multi-store model)
• cw has only STM, like HM, cannot form new LTMs
• cw has no LTM from before illness, showing more extensive brain damage
• hippocampus encodes episodic memory, but procedural is not affected
• semantic memory can survive damage to hippocampus and cortex
• shows MSM is too simple, LTM isn’t just one store
• emotional memories separate from episodic and can stay intact after hippocampus damage
• emotional memories may be linked to deeper structures like the amygdala

Question 16

what are the strengths of using case studies in research?

Answer 16

• useful for studying rare human behaviours or experiences (e.g. mental illness, brain damage)
  
  • can investigate cases that can’t be recreated in a lab
• provides rich, in-depth data due to the complex interaction of many factors
  
  • allows research into factors that might be overlooked in experiments with controlled variables
  • important for psychologists using a holistic approach to understanding behavior

Question 17

what are the weaknesses of using case studies in research?

Answer 17

• difficult to generalise due to unique characteristics of each case and lack of before and after comparisons
• often relies on recollection of past events, which can be unreliable due to inaccurate memories
• researchers may lack objectivity, influenced by familiarity with the case or theoretical biases
• ethical issues like confidentiality and anonymity; unique cases are often easily identifiable even without real names

Question 18

how does memory research differ in case studies compared to other types of research?

Answer 18

• memory research in cognitive psychology is often quantitative
• case studies of brain-damaged patients typically provide qualitative data
• describes intact or lost functions due to amnesia
• helps understand the subjective experiences of patients

Question 19

what are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative data in psychology?

Answer 19

• advantage: provides detailed accounts of a person’s experiences, feelings, and beliefs
• some argue it is the essence of psychology
• disadvantage: can lack objectivity because it requires interpretation, which may be biased

Question 20

how does qualitative research differ from quantitative research?

Answer 20

• qualitative research is not straightforward or mechanistic
• quantitative research follows a step-by-step procedure leading to data analysis
• qualitative research is defined by the nature of the investigation and choices made by the researcher
• involves making meaning from ppt responses, open to individual interpretation by the researcher

Question 21

what is the process of analysing qualitative data and its potential limitations?

Answer 21

• researcher establishes themes that emerge from the discourse
• applies meaning to the content and reaches subjective conclusions
• emergent themes are not invalid, but must be explained and justified with evidence from the discourse
• conclusions are subjective, relying on the researcher’s interpretation

Question 22

how does qualitative research differ from the hypothetico-deductive model and what methods are used?

Answer 22

• qualitative research is inductive, starting with a research question and developing answers through careful decoding of information
• doesn’t follow the hypothetico-deductive model (theory → test)
• data gathered using methods like unstructured/some-structured interviews, open-ended questionnaires, group discussions, speech analysis, and literature reviews
• non-numerical data is transcribed and notes are taken on emerging themes
• no single type of qualitative research or analysis, but general format is similar across studies

Question 23

what is the main aim of qualitative research and what does it reveal?

Answer 23

• aims to understand how individuals make sense of their own experiences
• focuses on how people perceive their world and the meanings they attach to it
• results in rich descriptions of how people disclose personal information
• explores the connections between events and feelings they associate with them

Question 24

what does it mean that qualitative data is idiographic and how is it typically used?

Answer 24

• qualitative data is idiographic, meaning it focuses on individuals rather than generalizing to others
• results are specific and unique to the individual involved
• while some research may claim themes are generalisable, qualitative studies often use small sample sizes
• research is typically built up into a case study

Question 25

how is qualitative data analysed after it is gathered?

Answer 25

- **transcriptions** are made of the participant’s **discourse** - researcher **immerses** in the text, making notes on **feelings, beliefs, and meanings** - notes are **reflected on** and checked against the transcript - **emerging themes** are developed from the notes - themes are presented as **conclusions** with **quotes** from the transcript to support them

Question 26

what are the strengths of qualitative analysis in psychology?

Answer 26

- gathers **rich descriptions** based on **meaning**, often missed by **quantitative methods** - goes beyond description to **understand, connect, and theorise** about emerging themes - helps explore **deep beliefs and feelings** that can’t be captured by questionnaires - especially useful in **health and clinical psychology** - helps understand how **patients experience palliative care** or what **caregivers** believe would help them

Question 27

what are the weaknesses of qualitative analysis?

Answer 27

- can be **laborious** and **time-consuming** - **transcription** takes a lot of time - lacks a **standardised format** - often criticised as **unscientific and highly subjective** - seen by some as more **descriptive** than **explanatory**