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PSYC 104 - social > Midterm 1 - reading > Flashcards

Midterm 1 - reading Flashcards

1
Q

name the three broad themes we care about so far

A

processing principles
motivational principles
general axioms

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2
Q

what are processing principles and name them

A

processing - thinking, cognitions; how we take in and deal with information

  • conservatism
  • accessinility
  • superficiality vs depth of processing
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3
Q

what is conservatism

A

a persons thoughts, beliefs, and opinons are slow to change and tend to perpetuate themselves

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4
Q

what is accessibility

A

information that is most accessible generally has the most impact on thoughts, feelings and behaviours

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5
Q

what is superficiality vs depth of processing

A

people typically put little effort into dealing with infromation, but at times are motivated and/or able to consider information more in depth

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6
Q

what are motivational principles and name them

A

motivation - what drives people to think, feel and act

  • need to feel good about ourselves and what is ours (people want to see themselves and things connected to themselves in a positive light
  • Need to be accurate and to understand and make sense of the world; strive for mastery: we seek to understand and predict events in the social world around us in order to obtain rewards and a sense of control; we need to know
  • Need to seek connectedness: people seek support, liking, and acceptance from people and groups they care about and value
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7
Q

name the three general axioms

A

interaction of the person and the situation
social influence is very persuasive
we construct / construe our own reality

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8
Q

explain interaction of the person and situaiton

A

both an individual’s personality/internal characteristics and environment/situational characteristics interact to influence feelings, thoughts, and behavior

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9
Q

explain social influence is very pervasive

A

people influence virtually all of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, whether these people are present or not, real or imagined, or whether or not we are aware of their influence

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10
Q

we construct / construe our own reality

A

ach person’s view of reality is a subjective, unique construction, shaped both by cognitive processes (the ways our minds work) and social processes (input from others either actually present or imagined); the world looks different from someone else’s eyes

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11
Q

define social psychology

A

the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of individuals in social situations

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12
Q

Abu Ghraib

A

Iraqi prisoner mistreatedment by american soldiers
torture and sexual abuse
30 years previous = zimbardo

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13
Q

who is jurt lewin

A

founder of modern social pscy
jewish berliner, fled nazi germany
behaviour of people like objects is a function of the field of forces in which they find themselves (in humans force = social situation, persons attributes are important but they always interact with the situation to produce the resulting behaviour)

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14
Q

explain Zimbardo

A

24 Stanford undergrad men - good character and mental health
random assignment to prisoner or guard
study ended after 6 days as went too brutal
balance of power so unequal, prison = brutal unless guards observe strict regs curbing their worst impulses

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15
Q

Milgram

A

learning and memory at yale (first done on just men then replicated with women)
participant = teacher administering shocks for mistakes, confederate = pupill recieving shocks
participant shocked way beyond safe levels
Teacher felt 45 v so knew it hurt but was told wasn’t causing any lasting damage
was egged on by experimenter who said he had to continue
key quesiton - why people conform

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16
Q

shock levels in milgram

A

80% past 150 v (heart problem and screamed let me out)
62.5% past 450 v (the whole way)
average = 360 v (learner had let out an agonised scream and had become hysterical0

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17
Q

what did milgram claim was key as to why people confromed

A

the step by step nature

if did 200 v then why not administer 225 v etc then suddenly we are at 450 v and we haven’t stopped

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18
Q

seminarians vs samaritans experiment

A

seminarians only stopped to help a man groaning, coughing and in need of help if they weren’t in a rush
- had just been reminded of their faith!

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19
Q

what factors govern people most

A

situational (in a hurry or under pressure) > internal (kind of person someone is)

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20
Q

define dispositions

A

internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that guide a persons behaviours

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21
Q

define fundamental attribution error

A

the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasise the importance of dispositions on behaviour

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22
Q

what are channel factors and the study about it (healthcare)

A

nudges
preventative helthcare - get yale students to get a tetnus shot
read scary material or
others got a map with health centre circled and asked to review their schedule for a convinient time
the map approach worked way better - used in obama campaign

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23
Q

define gestalt psych

A

form or figure
an approach that stresses the fact that people perceive objects not by means of some sutomatic registering device but by active, usually nonconscious interpretation of what the object represented as a whole

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24
Q

define construal

A

ones interpretation of or inference about the stimuli or situations that one confronts`

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25
Q

define schemas

A

a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information that is used to help in understanding events

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26
Q

define stereotype

A

a belief that certain attributed are characteristic of members of a particular group

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27
Q

automatic vs controled processing overview

A

automatic - nonconscious often based on emotional factors

controlled - conscious and systematic and more likely to be controlled by deliberative thought

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28
Q

what kinds of attitudes does automatic processing lead to

A

implicit

beliefs that cant readily be controlled by the mind

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29
Q

what kinds of attitudes does controlled processing lead to

A

explicit

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30
Q

what is ideomotor mimicry

A

we change our body position to match the person we are conversing with

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31
Q

some studies showing automatic processing controlling our behaviour

A

will rate last pari of stockings as the best
hostile and non hostile words then is donald hostile or not
when surrounded by greenery people are less aggressive than red
read persusive stuff in a fishy smelling room = more likley to find it fishy
body mimicing

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32
Q

why we use noncontrolled processing

A

conscious processing runs serially step by step = slow

automatic runs in parallel = faster

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33
Q

implication of nonconscious processing in social psych research

A

must craft experiments to isolate the true causes of peoples behaviour - cannot rely on verbal reports

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34
Q

culture and how we’ve studied / viewed its impact on our behaviour

A

used to think was just religious language etc
now think it goes much deeper to the level of fundamental forms of self-conception and social interaction even to the perceptual and cognitive processes people use to develop new thoughts and behaviours

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35
Q

define independent (individualistic) cultures

A

a culture in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others

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36
Q

define interdependent (collectivistic) cultures

A

a culture in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collevtive, inextricably tied to others in their group placing less importance on the individual freedom or personal control over their lives

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37
Q

table comparing independent and interdependent cultures

A

inde
-conception of self as distinct
-insistence on abilty to act on ones own
-need for individual distinctiveness
-preference for achieved status based on accomplishments
-conviction that rules governing behaviour should apply to everyone
inter
-conception of self as linked to others
-preference for collective action
-desire for harmonious relations within group
-acceptance of hierarcy based on attributes (age etc)
-preference for rules that take context and particular relationships into account

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38
Q

pen study on cultures

A

pen reward, all the same colour and one a different
americans = chose the special one
koreans = chose the normal / majority colour

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39
Q

culture shaping the human brain

A

chinese participants brain scanned then questionnaire of how inde vs inter they were
more independent ratings = denser grey matter in ventrmedial prefrontal cortex

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40
Q

social class and inter vs inde

A 
working class = more inter, middle class = more inde
changes parenting styles 
car study, middle class would be sad to have lost uniqueness if friend bought the same car as them whereas working class would be happy to share some trait
middle class found to prefer object they chose over one given (working class was vice versa)
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41
Q

define hindsight bias

A

peoples tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome

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42
Q

what is a thought experiment

A

think through the results you might get from a study

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43
Q

hypothesis

A

a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances

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44
Q

define theory

A

a set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of the world

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45
Q

what is dissonance theory

A

people dont like cognitive dissonance so will do alot of hard mental manipulation to get rid of it

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46
Q

participants observation

A

observing some phenomena at close range

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47
Q

archival research

A

researchers can look through archives

eg homocide more common in south than north

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48
Q

surveys

A

questionnaire people

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49
Q

representative sampling

A

people in the survey / sample must be representative of the population as a whole
best achieved through selecting potential respondents randomly
so in practice must know entire population then can randomly select from it

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50
Q

conveinience sampling

A

not random but based on an easiky available group
may be biased in some ways
eg literary digest predicting wrong election outcome as used telephone directories and automobile registrations = so just surveyed the wealthy

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51
Q

southern violenec study

A

southerners were more likely to favour violence in response to insults, threats to hoe and fmaily, defense
honor culture?

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52
Q

define correlaitonal research

A

research that involved measuring two or more variables and assessing whether there is a relationship betwen them

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53
Q

define experimental research

A

in social psycholgy research thay randomly assigns people to different conditions or situations and that enables researchers to mke inferences about why a relationship exists or how different situations affect behaviour

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54
Q

define third variable

A

a variable, often unmeasured in correlational research that can be the true explanation for the relationship between two other variables

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55
Q

self-selection

A

in correlational research the situaion in which the participant rather than the researcher determines the participants level of each variable therby creating a problem that it could be these unknown other properties that are responsible for the observed relationship
basically the stuff we cannot control for eg whether someone is married or not

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56
Q

define longitudinal study

A

a study conducted over a long period of time with the same participants

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57
Q

define iv

A

in experimental research the variable that is manipulated; it is hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome

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58
Q

define dv

A

in experimental research the variable that is measured (as opposed to manipulated); it is hypothesized to be affected by manipulation of the iv

59
Q

define random assignment

A

assigning participants in experimental research randomly to different conditions so they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as to another, with the effect of making the types of people in the different conditions roughly equal

60
Q

define control condition

A

a condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way except that it lacks one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the dv

61
Q

southerner angry study

A

north vs south
conditions = gets insulted in corridor or not
dv - obs, made to finish a story off, testosterone levels, then chicken with the lab technition who walked down the middle of the corridor

62
Q

define natural experiments

A

a naturally occuring event or phenomenon habing somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigour as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions

63
Q

define external validity

A

how well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the conditions of the lab

64
Q

why poor external validity wasn’t too problematic in milgram

A

people never going to be placed in that situation

but Milgram’s study highlighted why such things have happened (nazi etc) and how they will probably happen again

65
Q

when is external validity not essential

A

when the purpose is to clarify a general idea or theory

66
Q

define field experiment

A

an experiment conducted in the real world (not a lab), usually with participants who are not aware they are in a study of any kind

67
Q

define internal validity

A

in experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results

68
Q

how to maintain internal validity

A

random assignemnet
third variables controlled for
realistic experimental set up

69
Q

define reliability

A

the degree to which the particular way researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results

70
Q

measurement validity

A

the correlation between a measure and some outcome the measure is supposed to predict
validity coefficients = the number

71
Q

define replication

A

reproduction of research results by the original investigator or by someone else

  • sometimes wont replicate = results called into question
  • replication may not have been done right
  • sometimes just chance fail
  • replication may fail because was a fluke it worked the first time
72
Q

5 threats to internal validity named

A 
selection bias
differential attribution
regression to the mean
experimenter / rater buas
expectancy / hawthorn effects
73
Q

define selection bias

A

assignment to conditions is not random but systematic

so diff people in diff conditions = the reason for differences and not what was manipulated

74
Q

define differential attribution

A

if many more people drop out from one condition than another the people who stay in the more taxing or upsetting condition are likely to be different from those in the other condition, thus undermining random assignment

75
Q

define regression to the mean

A

if people are in a study because they are exteme on the variable of interest, they are likely to become less extreme even though nothing is done
therefore a treatment can seem effective even when it is of no value
to combat this prblem the subjects in the treatment condition should be equally extreme (by random assignment)

76
Q

experimenter / rater bias

A

if DV has an element of subjectivity and the rater knows the hypothesis or what condition the subject or object of judgement was in, the rater may make biased judgements
the most common solution = make the rater blind

77
Q

what are expectancy / hawthorn effects

A

participants can be biased by their expectations about the purpose of the experiment and act in away that confirms them
the most common solution is to make the experiment double blind so neither the rater or the participants know what the study is designed to test and/or what condition the participant is in

78
Q

some ways we are trying to solve the replication crisis

A

using larger sample sizes

insistence on reporting all stats and not just the one measure that popped out as significant

79
Q

define open science

A

practices such as sharing data and research materials with anyone in the broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of scientific research

80
Q

institutional review board (IRB)

A

a committee that examines research proposals and makes judgements about the ethical appropriateness of the research
- one scientisit
- one non scientist
- one person not affiliated with the university
pre 2018 all federal funding used to need an IRB but now if only benign intervention ie interviews and surveys, abilities and personality tests, economic games, decision making and research on conformity to group norms not needed

81
Q

define informed consent

A

a persons signed agreement to participate in a procedure or research study after learning all of its relevant aspects

82
Q

define deception research

A

research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the menaing of something that is done to them

83
Q

define debriefing

A

in preliminary versions of an experiment, asking particpants directly if they understood the instructions, found the setup to be reasonable and so on
in later version debriefing is used to educate participants about the questions being studied

84
Q

snap judgements

A

how we quickly make impressions of people
face ratings were just as accurate when made snap and in a hurry than when given a long time to make the decision
- our first impressions of people
most research says they do well but we shouldn’t put too much confidence in them as are just a kernel of truth

85
Q

the 5 parts of social cognition

A

our judgements are only as accurate as the quality of information on which they are based (and the info available to us in everyday life is not always representative or complete)
the way info is presented, including the order in which it is presented or how it is framed, can affect the judgements we make
we don’t just passively take in information, we actively seek it out and pervasive bias in how we do so can distort the conclusions we reach
our preexisting knowledge and mental habits can influence how we construe new info and thus substantially influence judgement
two mental systems : reason and intuition undelie social cognition and their complex interplay determines what judgements we make

86
Q

define pluralistic ignorance

A

misperception of a group norma the results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences; those actions reinforce the erroneous group norm
eg gang members all think they act too brutally but won’t be the one to admit it
racial groups not wanting to make friends because both think the other one isn’t interested

87
Q

define self-fulfilling prophecy

A

the tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen
eg bloomers study
note to be self fulfiling some mechanism must be at work to translate a persons expectation into action

88
Q

self fulfilling prophect in interviewing suspects

A

students go to classroom either told to take $100 or just go there
another group of students told who was guilty and who wasn’t
student interviewer was much more rigorous with the ones they thoughts were guilty which then made those accused more defensive and appear like they had committed the crime

89
Q

bad news bias

A

media reports crime looks like 80% is violent when in fact it is only 20%
no rise and fall of crime in the media - its always there
= leads people to think crime has increase in the last 20 years when it has in fact decreased

90
Q

watching tv and being a victim of crime belief study

A

correlationally watch more tv, higher belief will be a victim of crime
further research
people who live in dangerous areas and dont watch much tv fell safer than ther neighbours who watch alot

91
Q

define primacy effects

A

a type of order effect: the disproportionate influence on judgement by information presented first in a body of evidence

92
Q

define recency effect

A

a type of order effect: the disproportionate influence on judgement by information presented last in a body of evidence

93
Q

an example of order effects in questionnaire

A

how happy are you
how many dates have you been on in the last month
correlation wayyyy higher when asked the other way round

94
Q

when does primacy effect most often occur

A

when the information is ambiguous

so what comes first alters how the later bits of info are perceived

95
Q

when do recency effects occur most often

A

when the last item comes more readily to mind

96
Q

define framing effect

A

the influence on judgement resulting from the way information is presented, such as the order of presentation or the wording
order effects are a type of framing effect

97
Q

spin framing

A

varies the content, not just the order, of what is presented
eg frame product in terms of quality or in terms of price
frame in negative terms = more likely to dislike and be cautious

98
Q

define construal level theory

A

a theory about the relationship between temporal distance (and other kinds of distance) and abstract or concrete thinking: psychologically distinct actions and events are thought about in terms of abstract terms; actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms

99
Q

temporal frame

A

we change our ideas based on the time

ie commit to early plans yesterday afternoon but now when push comes to shove don’t want to get out of bed

100
Q

define confirmation bias

A

the tendency to test a proposition by searching for evidence that would support it

101
Q

define bottom-up processing

A

data driven mental processing in which an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered in the environment

102
Q

define top-down processing

A

theory driven mental processing in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations

103
Q

attention is …

A

selective

104
Q

how schemas effect our judgements

A

directing our attention
structuring our memories
influencing our interpretations
but can lead us to mischaracterise the world

105
Q

gorilla study

A

basketball thrown around and count passes
you miss th gorilla walking through the scene
only half the participants noticed it

106
Q

schemas and memory

A

memory - attention in past tense

schemas effec tour memory

107
Q

donald experiment

A

participants thought was two separate studies
words - of confidence of aloofness
then rated donald based on same description of him
those shown more favourable words rated him as more favourable

108
Q

define priming

A

the presentation of information designed to activate a concept and hence make it accessible. a prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question

109
Q

define subliminal

A

below the threshold of conscious awareness

110
Q

some quick studeis using priming and subliminal messages

A

subliminall present gamble or stay will influence people gambling
playing german music increases sales of german wine
activate goal achievement through showing dollar signs = people work harder on difficult stuff

111
Q

types of schema activations

A

recent = like priming those words in donald study
frequent activations and chronic accessibility = if you use a schema alot you rely on it and will use it more in the future

112
Q

do you need to be conscious a schema is being activated to act on it

A

probably not

interviews post studies most people dont realise there was a link

113
Q

expectations and schema application

A

sometimes people apply a schema because of a preexisting expectation about what they will encounter
this expectation activates the schema

114
Q

when does the intuitive system operate

A

quickly and automatically
based on associations
performs many operations simultaneously and in parallel

115
Q

when does the rational system operate

A

slower and more controlled

based on rules and deductions and performs operations one at time - serially

116
Q

amos tversky and daniel kahneman

- what did they work on

A

heuristics of judegments

big impact of their work

117
Q

define heuristics

A

intuitive mental operations, performed quickly and automatically, that provide efficient answers to common problems of judgement

118
Q

define availability heuristics

A

the processs whereby judgements of frequency ot probabliity are based on how readily pertinent instances come to mind

119
Q

define representativeness heuristic

A

the process whereby judgements of likelihood are based on assessments of similarity between individuals and group prototypes or between cause and effect

120
Q

argument tversky and kahneman made

A

the intuitive system automatically performs certain mental operations that powerfully influence judgement
they yield answers that feel right and therefore often forestall more effortful, rational deliberation
although these heuristics generally serve us well, they distort our judgements
leads to a systematically biased system

121
Q

where can availability heuristics be problematic

A

assessment of risk

122
Q

define fluency

A

the feeling of ease (or difficulty) associated with processing information

123
Q

how we assess group membership

A

we ask if the person look slike the prototype and not assess the likelihood they are a group member
we use representativeness heuristics

124
Q

define base-rate information

A

information about the relative frequency of events or of members of different categories in a population

125
Q

study on tom by tversy and kahneman

A

descirption of tom
gp 1 read and said how likley it was he studies each subject
gp2 read and said how likely it was he worked now in each discipline
last group didnt read about tom and just rated how many people they thought did each college degree
= found likelihood of tom studying and toms similatiy ratings were very similar (gp 1and 2) - people followed a prototype approach
but base rates came out totally different

126
Q

define attribution theory

A

a set of concepts explaining how people assign cuase to the events aound them and the effects of these kinds of causal assessments

127
Q

define causal attribution

A

linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait is responsible for a behaviour
used to explain both their own and others behaviour

128
Q

define explanatory style

A

a persons habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along 3 dimensions; internal/external, stable/unstable ad global/specific

129
Q

what explanatory styles are correlated with poor life outcomes

A

explain negative events im terms of internal, stable and global causes

130
Q

explanaotry style and health

A

link has been found
longitudinal
optimistic explanatory style during younger adulthood was a significant predictor of good physical health in later life

131
Q

attribtuions about controllability and success

A

if view outcomes as in your control will persevere, if you think they are out of your controll, will give up
we can train people to adopt certain mindsets (Dweck stuff)

132
Q

define covariation principle

A

the idea that behaviour should be attributed to potential causes that occur along with observed behaviour

133
Q

define consensus

A

a type of covariation information: whether most people would behave the same way or differently in a given situation

134
Q

define distinctiveness

A

a type of covariation information: whether a behaviour is unique to a particular situation or occurs in many or all situations

135
Q

define consistency

A

a type of covariation information: whether an individual behaves the same way or differently in a given situation on different occasions

136
Q

when do we make situational attributions

A

when consistency, consensus and distinctiveness are all high

137
Q

when are dispositional attributions called for

A

when consistency is high but consensus and distinctiveness are low

138
Q

what do we tend to focus on

A

information about the person (distinctiveness and consistency) at the expense of information that speaks to influence of the surrounding context (consensus)

139
Q

define self-serving attribution bias

A

the tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to exernal circumstances and other good events to ourself

140
Q

define the fundamental attribution error

A

the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behaviour

141
Q

define just world hypothesis

A

the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get

142
Q

salience in attributions

A

features of the environment that grab our attention more become more salient so are blamed more

143
Q

define the actor-observer difference

A

a difference in attribution based on who is maing the causal assessment: the actor (who is relatively inclined to make situational attributions) or the observer (who is relatively inclined to make the dispositions)

144
Q

several causes of the actor-observer difference

A

assumptions about what needs explaining
perceptual salience
information the actor and observer have

PSYC 104 - social (9 decks)

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