1
Q
PERFUSION
A
blood supply
2
Q
ERYTHROPOIETIN
A
- cytokine that influences/differentiates RBC’s
- stimulated by HYPOXIA
- made in KIDNEYS
3
Q
CYTOKINE
A
- peptides/proteins that are chem factors
- released fr one cell to affect the growth/activity of another
- made on-demand/not stored
4
Q
THROMBOPOIETIN
A
- regulates growth/maturation of MEGAKARYOCYTES
- made in LIVER
5
Q
MEGAKARYOCYTES
A
- huge cells that undergo DNA replication up to 7x w/o undergoing cytoplasmic division
- polyploid cell w multiple copies of DNA in stretched nucleus
- OUTER EDGES BREAK OFF INTO PLATELETS
6
Q
PLATELETS
A
- cell fragments of megakaryocytes
- no nucleus; contains mitochondria, smooth ER, granules
- 10 day lifespan
7
Q
HEMOLYSIS
breakdown of blood
A
- macrophages in spleen breaks down old/damaged RBC
- Spleen converts heme group to BILIRUBIN
3A. bilirubin is metabolized in LIVER into BILE
3B. bilirubin is secreted in the urine - BILE secreted into intestines
8
Q
HEMOLYSIS conversions
A
- heme group to BILIRUBIN
- amino acids to new proteins
- iron is reused for new heme groups
9
Q
FIBRINOLYSIS
A
process of breakdown of FIBRIN by enzyme PLASMIN
10
Q
FIBRINOGEN
A
- inactive glycoprotein complex made in the liver
- converted into active FIBRIN when enzyme THROMBIN is added
11
Q
FIBRIN
A
insolulable fibrous protein that is involved in blood clotting
12
Q
EXTRINSIC PATHWAY
1 of 3 coagulation pathway
A
-damage exposes TISSUE FACTOR
13
Q
INTRINSIC PATHWAY
1 of 3 coagulation pathway
A
-damage to tissue EXPOSES COLLAGEN
14
Q
BOYLE’S LAW
A
inverse relationship b/w volume and pressure
- increase in vol, decrease in pressure
- decrease in vol, increase in pressure
P1V1=P2V2
15
Q
ALVEOLI
A
- site of gas exchange + external respiration
- interconnected air sac associated w pulmonary capillaries
- single layer epithelium
16
Q
ALVEOLI TYPE I CELLS
A
- 95% of alveolar surface area
- thin + large for rapid diffusion
- basement membrane fuses TYPE I to CAPILLARY EPITHELIUM
17
Q
ALVEOLI TYPE II CELLS
A
- synthesizes + secretes SURFACTANT
- smaller but thicker
18
Q
SURFACTANT
A
- decreases surface tension on alveoli surface
- helps equalize pressure which makes expansion easier
- mixture of proteins and phospholipids
19
Q
ALVEOLAR VENTILATION RATE
A
-more accurate indication of how much FRESH AIR is reaching the lungs (vs. TOTAL PULMONARY VENTILATION)
vent rate x (total vol - dead space)
20
Q
TOTAL PULMONARY VENTILATION
A
vent rate x total volume
21
Q
PLASMA COMPOSITION
A
92% water 7% proteins -organic moles. (amino acds, glucose, lipids, nitro waste) -ions -trace elements + vitamins -gases (O2, CO2)
22
Q
PLASMA PROTEINS
A
ALBUMIN
GLOBULIN
FIBRINOGEN
TRANSFERRIN
23
Q
FUNCTIONS OF RBC’s
A
- transports O2 and CO2
24
Q
FUNCTIONS OF PLATELETS
A
-helps stop blood loss, immunity, + inflammatory response
25
4 FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1 exchange of gases
2 homeostatic reg of pH by controlling CO2
3 vocalization
4 protection fr inhaled pathogens + irritating substances
26
4 RESPIRATORY VOLS
TIDAL VOL (amt that moves during resting insp. + exp.)
INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOL (addt'l vol above Vt)
EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOL (addt'l vol below Vt)
RESIDUAL VOL (vol of air still in lungs after forceful expiration)
27
```
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
(capacity=2 or more lung vol)
```
TOTAL LUNG CAP (Vt + IRV +ERV +RV)
VITAL CAP (Vt + IRV + ERV)
INSPIRE CAP ( Vt + IRV)
FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAP (ERV + RV)
28
ENERGY
capacity to do work (chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work)
2 types: KINETIC and POTENTIAL
29
ACTIVATION ENERGY
initial input of energy required to bring reactants into a position that allows them to react w one another
30
EXERGONIC RXN
-release of energy
| FREE ENERGY OF PROD < FREE ENERGY OF REACTNT
31
ENZYMES
Protein catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering their activation energy
32
ENZYME SPECIFITY
characteristic of enzymes to only bind to/work on specific ligand or group of related ligands
33
EXOCYTOSIS
process in which intracellular vesicles fuse w the membrane and release their contents to ICF
34
GLUCONEOGENESIS
noncarbohydrate precursors, especially amino acids, are converted into glucose
35
ACROMEGALY
Abnormal growth of cartilage and soft tissues due to excess growth hormone secretion in an adult
-in children, it is GIANTISM
36
Cell Composition
Nucleus
Membrane
Cytoplasm
37
Membranous Organelles
```
1 Mitochondria
2 Endo Reticulum
3 Golgi Apparatus
4 Lysosomes
5 Peroxisomes
```
38
Nonmembranous Organelles
```
1 Cytoskeleton
2 Centriole
3 Cilia
4 Flagella
5 Lipid droplets
6 Glyco granules
7 Ribosome
```
39
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
-potential (charge) difference b/w inside and outside of cell. K is high inside, Na is high outside
ICF = -70mV
ICF K+=150mM
ICF NA+=5mM
ECF = 0mV
ECF K+=5mM
ECF Na+=150mM
40
Na+/K+ PUMP
Responsible for depolarization for action potention.
Na channels have two gates: 1. voltage 2. time-sen..at resting, channels are mostly open for K and mostly closed for Na.
Change in K causes a greater difference than a change in Na
41
ACTION POTENTIAL POLARIZATIONS
HYPERPOLARIZATION - more neg, K+ leaves
DEPOLARIZATION - (peaks at -30mV), opening of Na channels
REPOLARIZATION - open voltage gated K channels (K moves out again)
42
Diameter vs Myelination
Sm Diameter + Thick Myelination is faster than Lg Diameter w no myelination
43
ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLE of ACTION POTENTIAL
Once the AXON HILLOCK receives the treshold, the action potential is continuous. (-55mV)
A weak stimuli that does not reach threshold does NOT activate an action potential.
44
Refractory Period
-temporarily insensitive segment of the cell bc just recently terminated an action potention.
Na time sensitive gates are closed.
Once reopened, the threshold is much higher than normal
45
ALPHA CELLS of Pancreas
low blood glucose levels (or FASTED STATE) trigger Alpha cells w the release of GLUCAGON.
46
BETA CELLS of Pancreas
When high blood glucose levels, the Beta cells are activated to release INSULIN
47
INSULIN
binds to receptors on LIVER CELLS.
Liver responds my taking in more glucose.
stimulates GLYCOLYSIS(glucose breakdown) + GLYCOGENESIS (glycogen synthesis)
48
GLUCAGON
```
stimulates the LIVER
stimulates GLYCOGENOLYSIS (glycogen into glucose) + GLYCONEOGENESIS to increase glucose output
```
49
GRADED POTENTIAL
- Input signal thru dendrites + cell body
- if reached AXON HILLOCK (trigger zone) w threshold reached, it triggers an ACTION POTENTIAL
- strength decreases as it travels b/c of leakage; not all or nothing
50
Gluconeogenesis
(in liver) amino acids or pyruvate enter GLYCOLYSIS.
pyruvate is converted to GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE.
(in kidney, liver) glucose 6 phosphate is converted to GLUCOSE
51
PEPTIDE HORMONE
- v water-sol
- short half life
- LIPOPHOBIC - unable to enter target cell; must bind to receptors
52
STEROID HORMONE
- LIPOPHILLIC (simple diffusion)
- acts as transcription factor
- cholesterol derived
- only made in a few organs (adrenacortex, gonads, skin, placenta)
- can bind to carrier proteins to extend half life
53
AMINO ACID HORMONE
- created from either TYROSINE or TRYTOPHAN
| - melatonin, thyroid hormones, catecholamines (epinephrine, dopamin, norepinephrine)
54
Anterior Pituitary/Hypophyseal
| 6 hormones
*2-5 TROPHIC HORMONES have other endocrine glands as their targets
1 Prolactin
2 Thyrotropin aka Thyroid Stim Hormone (TSH)
3 Adrenocorticotropin ACTH
4 Growth Hormone (GH) liver, bone, kidneys, cartilg
5 Follicle-Stim Hormone (FSH)
6 Luteneizing Hormone (LH)
55
Posterior Pituitary/Hypophyseal
| 2 hormones
```
1 Oxytocin (controls contraction + ejection of milk)
2 Vasopressin aka ANTIDIURETIC HORM. (acts on kidneys to regulate water balance which in turn regulates blood pressure)
```
56
Hypothalamus
1 THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE TRH (controls secretion of TSH)
2 GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING HORMONE (GHRH)
3 GH INHIBITING HORMONE (somatostatin)
4 CORTICOTROPHIN RELEASING HORMONE CRH (controls secretion of corticotrophon aka ACTH)
57
Adrenal Medulla
secretes mostly Catecholamines
1 Epinephrine
2 Nonepinephrine
3 Dopamin
58
Thyroid Glands
- one of the larger thyroid glands
- hormones contain IODINE
- not essential for life but essential for growth + dvlpt
- follicular cells produce (THYROGLOBULIN + ENZYMES) for hormone synthess
- C-cells produces Calcitonin (reabsorbtion of Ca)
59
Adrenal Cortex
1 Aldosterone (targets the kidneys for erythropoiten)
2 Cortisol
3 Androgen
60
Thyroid Hormones
T3 + T4
- made of TYROSINE with iodine on the thyroglobulin
- lipophlic, must bind to receptors
IN ADULTS : provides substrate for oxidative metabolism
IN KIDS : required for full expression of GH: built nervous sym, myelin synapse formation, microtubule assembly, BONE GROWTH
61
Thyroid Hormones
T3 + T4
- made of TYROSINE with iodine on the thyroglobulin
- lipophlic, must bind to receptors
IN ADULTS : provides substrate for oxidative metabolism
IN KIDS : required for full expression of GH: built nervous sym, myelin synapse formation, microtubule assembly, BONE GROWTH
62
Cortisol
- fr adrenal cortex
- Liver - gluconeogenesis - ketones
- Adipose - lipolysis
- Muscle - protein catabolism
- Immune Systm - suppressed
63
Cushing's Disease/Syndrome
| hypercortisolism
disease - ant pituitary tumor
syndrome - adrenal gland tumor
iatrogenic syndrome - physician induced
64
Addison's Disease
hypocortisolism. caused by destruction of adrenal cortex
65
Type I Diabetes
- insulin-deficient; 10% of diabetics
- protein metabolism for atp production
- fat metabolism - fatty acids turn into KETONES
- hyperglycemia - gycogenolysis + gluconeogenesis
- brain metabolism -satiety center is insulin dependant
- metabolic acidosis fr anaerobic metab + ketones
- dehydration
66
Type II Diabetes
90% of diabetics
67
Type II Diabetes
90% of diabetics
- normal to high insulin levels but decreased target responsiveness
- unlike TYPE I, does not need ketone production
PHYS 261
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