Modern Chinese Philosophy Flashcards
(27 cards)
What is the central theme of Lecture 1 on Liang Shuming in PHIL100 Week 20?
Lecture 1 focuses on how Chinese philosophy during the 20th century responded to Eurocentrism. It explores how thinkers like Liang Shuming attempted to assert the legitimacy of Chinese thought in a world dominated by Western philosophical paradigms. It also covers the New Culture Movement and its critique of Confucianism, as well as Liang’s cultural philosophy.
How does Eurocentrism affect the perception of philosophy according to the lecture?
Eurocentrism presumes that philosophy is inherently a European creation and that only European cultures are rational and civilized. This notion delegitimized Chinese philosophy by framing it as unphilosophical or merely spiritual. The lecture highlights how Chinese thinkers had to respond to this bias to defend their intellectual traditions.
Who was Liang Shuming and what is significant about his background?
Liang Shuming was a Chinese philosopher born in 1893 who underwent a diverse intellectual transformation. Initially educated in Western schools and a student of Buddhism, he later taught Indian philosophy at Peking University before turning to Confucianism in 1921. He was also involved in the Rural Reconstruction Movement and served as a mediator between Nationalists and Communists during WWII. He was a critic of Mao’s policies by the 1950s.
What historical events shaped the intellectual landscape of early 20th-century China?
Major events include the Opium Wars (1839–42 and 1856–60), which exposed China to humiliating defeats and unequal treaties. This led to a realisation among Chinese intellectuals of the need for Western technology and reforms. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, and the rise of the Republic of China in 1912 also created a period of crisis and transformation that encouraged cultural re-evaluation.
What was the New Culture Movement and why did it oppose Confucianism?
The New Culture Movement (1915–1920s) was an intellectual movement that sought to replace traditional Chinese culture with modern, Western ideals. It viewed Confucianism as upholding monarchy, authoritarianism, familial hierarchy, and patriarchal oppression. Its leaders like Chen Duxiu believed Confucianism was incompatible with the values of modernity, such as individualism, science, and democracy.
What is Social Darwinism and how did Chen Duxiu apply it to Chinese culture?
Social Darwinism is the idea that human societies evolve through survival of the fittest, similar to natural selection. Chen Duxiu argued that China’s traditional Confucian culture was unfit for survival in the modern world. He preferred cultural extinction over national extinction, indicating a harsh rejection of traditional values in favour of Western modernisation.
What does Liang Shuming propose in his book ‘Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Philosophies’?
Liang Shuming compares Chinese, Indian, and Western cultures based on their underlying wills. He suggests Western culture is driven by the will to satisfy desires, Indian culture by the will to renounce desires, and Chinese culture by the will to moderate them. He argues that each culture represents a unique philosophy of life and that Confucianism fosters social harmony through intuitive moral action.
How does Liang Shuming reinterpret Confucius?
Liang sees Confucius not as a rigid moralist but as someone who followed his natural intuition rather than formal principles. He argues that Confucius’ teachings emphasize harmony, spontaneity, and acting from the ‘original mind’ (benxin), which is innately good but can be corrupted by habits. This interpretation supports a return to an authentic Chinese way of life grounded in intuition and ethical sensitivity.
What is the original mind (benxin) according to Liang Shuming?
The original mind, or benxin, is the pure, good moral intuition that every person is born with. Liang believes it is the natural moral compass within us that gets clouded by societal habits and learned behaviors. Confucian ethics, for Liang, is about recovering this innate moral orientation rather than acquiring external rules.
How does Liang critique the historical practice of Confucianism in China?
Liang criticises how Confucianism was historically practiced as rigid and formalistic. He claims that the real teachings of Confucius were overshadowed by feudal rituals and dogma. He believes true Confucianism involves spontaneity, intuitive action, and a deep moral consciousness, which have rarely been put into actual practice.
How does Liang Shuming view Western rationality compared to Chinese intuition?
Liang argues that Western rationality breaks natural human relationships by replacing them with calculated, interest-driven interactions. Chinese intuition, on the other hand, preserves an immediate, affective bond between people. He views intuition as more conducive to social harmony and moral action.
How does Liang contrast goal-oriented actions with the Confucian way of life?
Liang asserts that Confucianism emphasizes acting in harmony with one’s natural feelings without deliberate planning. This contrasts with the Western focus on goal-driven, utilitarian behavior. For Liang, the Confucian way is more spontaneous and morally reliable.
How does Daoism and Buddhism influence Liang Shuming’s philosophy?
Liang is influenced by Daoism’s emphasis on naturalness and spontaneity, and by Buddhism’s idea of the original mind versus conditioned mind. These influences reinforce his idea of intuitive, morally grounded action as central to a reformed Chinese philosophy.
Does Liang succeed in challenging Eurocentrism?
Liang partly challenges Eurocentrism by asserting the philosophical depth of Chinese culture. However, he also reinforces Eurocentric frames by accepting a temporal model where China lags behind the West. He envisions a world-historical process that starts with Westernisation but culminates in Confucian and then Buddhist spiritual enlightenment.
What is the main danger in Liang’s representation of Chinese culture?
Liang risks reproducing Orientalist stereotypes by defining Chinese culture as passive, intuitive, and stagnant compared to the rational and progressive West. Although he reverses the value judgment, he still relies on binary oppositions that stem from colonial discourse.
Who authored the New Confucian Manifesto and when was it published?
The manifesto was published in Hong Kong in January 1958. It was authored by Tang Junyi, Zhang Junmai, Mou Zongsan, and Xu Fuguan. These scholars, displaced by political upheaval in China, sought to reaffirm the value of Chinese philosophy and culture in the modern world.
What are the main issues the New Confucian Manifesto addresses?
The manifesto addresses three interrelated issues: the Eurocentric idea that philosophy is inherently European, the marginalisation of Chinese culture in modernity, and the lack of institutional space for Chinese philosophy both in China and globally.
How did the political climate of the 1950s impact Chinese philosophy?
In the People’s Republic of China, philosophy was only permitted through a Marxist-Leninist lens. Independent philosophical reflection was suppressed. In Taiwan, Confucianism was co-opted by the Nationalists for authoritarian purposes. In Hong Kong, British colonial rule discouraged Chinese-language higher education, limiting academic freedom.
What critique does the manifesto make of Western Sinology?
It criticizes Western Sinology for treating Chinese culture as a dead object of study, devoid of philosophical vitality. Sinology focuses on philology and historical linguistics, ignoring the living, ethical, and spiritual dimensions of Chinese thought.
What are the three methodological rules proposed by the manifesto for studying Chinese culture?
- Chinese culture should be approached as a living entity, not a fossil. 2. Researchers must see themselves as part of the historical flow of culture. 3. A respectful attitude toward Chinese culture is essential for true understanding.
How does the manifesto compare Western and Chinese culture?
Western culture is portrayed as pluralistic and fragmented with no single philosophical core, while Chinese culture is described as unified, with philosophy as its essence. Western philosophy is seen as abstract, written by isolated individuals, whereas Chinese philosophy is practical, ethically engaged, and central to cultural life.
What is xin xing zhi xue (心性之學) and why is it central to Chinese philosophy?
Xin xing zhi xue means ‘the study of the mind and human nature.’ It draws on Mencian ideas that human nature is good and that the original mind (benxin) must be cultivated. It embodies a Confucian ethical practice aiming to align personal conduct with Heaven (tian), understood as a moral ideal.
How does political freedom relate to the practice of Confucian ethics in the manifesto?
The manifesto argues that the Confucian ethical life (xin xing zhi xue) requires the development of moral consciousness, which is only possible in a democratic society. Authoritarian systems stifle personal agency, making ethical self-cultivation impossible except for rulers.
How does the manifesto apply Hegel’s theory of historical freedom?
The authors use Hegel’s stages of history to argue that Chinese history initially lacked consciousness of freedom, Greek civilization allowed some freedom, and Germanic modernity represents full freedom. They imply that for Chinese people to realize full ethical and political agency, democracy is necessary.
