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Biology > Module 4 > Flashcards

Module 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What affects communicable disease transmission? (3)

A
  • Social Factors (1)
  • Living conditions (1)
  • Climate (1)
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2
Q

Human barriers of pathogens? (6)

A
  • Acidic stomach (1)
  • Physical barrier of skin (1)
  • Mucus produced by goblet cells
    waft pathogens to stomach (1)
  • Inflammation causes area to
    vasodilate and white blood cells
    to arrive quickly (1)
  • Expulsive responses such as
    sneezing and coughing (1)
  • Intestines and skin covered in
    harmless bacteria to compete
    with harmful pathogens (1)
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3
Q

Plant physical defenses? (3)

A
  • Waxy cuticle provides physical
    barrier on leaf surface (1)
  • Cell wall barrier beneath waxy
    cuticle (1)
  • Callose makes it harder for
    pathogens to enter cells (1)
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4
Q

Plant chemical defenses? (2)

A
  • Produce antibiotic compounds
    to inhibit growth of bacteria or
    fungi (1)
  • Produce insecticides to reduce
    infection of plant viruses
    caused by vectors (1)
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5
Q

What is the immune response when antigens are detected? (4)

A
  • Phagocytosis (1)
  • T lymphocyte activation (1)
  • B lymphocyte activation (1)
  • Antibody production by plasma
    cells (1)
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6
Q

What are the steps of phagocytosis? (5)

A
  • Phagocytes receptors bind to
    pathogens antigens (1)
  • Pathogen engulfs into vesicle
    phagosome (1)
  • Lysosome fuses with
    phagosome to form
    phagolysosome (1)
  • Pathogen removed from
    phagocyte by exocytosis (1)
  • Some antigen molecules left,
    with the phagocyte now being
    an antigen-presenting cell (APC)
    (1)
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7
Q

What are T lymphocytes? (3)

A
  • White blood cells with receptors on
    their surface (1)
  • Binds to complementary antigens
    (1)
  • Once they bind, clonal expansion
    will occur through mitosis to form
    specific T cells (1)
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8
Q

What are the types of T cells? (4)

A
  • T helper cells (1)
  • T killer cells (1)
  • T regulatory cells (1)
  • T memory cells (1)
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9
Q

What are the roles of T helper and T killer cells? (2)

A
  • T helper cells release chemicals to
    activate B lymphocytes (1)
  • T killer cells destroys any infected
    cells (1)
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10
Q

What are the role of T regulatory and T memory cells? (2)

A
  • T regulatory cells suppress other
    immune cells and prevent damage
    to host cells (1)
  • T memory cells remain in the
    bloodstream in case of reinfection
    and can divide into the other T cells
    (1)
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11
Q

How are B cells activated? (2)

A
  • When cytokines/interleukins are released from T
    helper cells (1)
  • When antibodies on their surface
    binds to complementary antigens (1)
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12
Q

What do B cells differentiate into when activated? (4)

A
  • Plasma cells (1)
    • Produces antibodies
      complimentary to the antigen (1)
  • Memory cells (1)
    • Remains in the bloodstream and
      will divide into plasma cells if
      antigens are present again (1)
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13
Q

Describe the antibody structure? (3)

A
  • Quaternary structure (1)
  • Four polypeptide chains (2 heavy
    and 2 light chains) (1)
  • Held by disulfide bridges (1)
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14
Q

What is meant by the variable and constant region? (4)

A
  • Variable region is the top half of the
    antibody that is unique (1)
  • Where the antigen binding site is
    located (1)
  • Constant region is the bottom half
    that stays the same (1)
  • Binding site for immune system
    cells such as B cells and phagocytes
    (1)
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15
Q

What is meant by hinge region? (2)

A
  • Region between constant and
    variable region (1)
  • Provides antibody with stability (1)
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16
Q

What are the ways antibodies destroy pathogens? (3)

A
  • Agglutination (1)
  • Anti-toxins (1)
  • Opsonisation (1)
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17
Q

How does agglutination work? (3)

A
  • Antibodies contain 2 antigen
    binding sites (1)
  • Binds and clumps 2 pathogens
    (1)
  • Phagocytes can engulf multiple
    pathogens at the same time (1)
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18
Q

How do neutralizing toxins work? (2)

A
  • Antibodies bind with toxin (1)
  • Antibody toxin complex is
    destroyed by phagocyte (1)
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19
Q

How do opsonins work? (1)

A
  • They bind and tag to foreign cells to make them easier for
    phagocyte recognition (1)
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20
Q

What is primary immune response? (2)

A
  • When you are infected with a
    certain pathogen for the first time
    (1)
  • Causes production of memory
    T and B cells (1)
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21
Q

Why is primary immune response slow? (2)

A
  • Takes time for the correct B
    cells to be activated (1)
  • And for them to divide into
    plasma cells to produce
    antibodies (1)
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22
Q

Why is secondary immune response so fast with no symptoms? (3)

A
  • T and B memory cells will
    recognize the antigen (1)
  • T memory cells divide into T
    killer cells (1)
  • B memory cells divide into
    plasma cells to produce
    antibodies (1)
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23
Q

What is active immunity? (2)

A
  • Making your own antibodies
    stimulated by an antigen (1)
  • Can be natural from illness or
    artificial from vaccination (1)
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24
Q

What is passive immunity? (2)

A
  • Given ready made antibodies
    produced from another
    organism (1)
  • Can be natural from breastfed
    milk or artificial from injection
    (1)
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25
Difference between active and passive immunity? (2)
- Active immunity lasts longer with memory cells staying (1) - But passive immunity has immediate protection (1)
26
What are autoimmune diseases? (3)
- When the immune system cant distinguish self antigens and attacks normal body cells (1) - Long term/Chronic (1) - Example being rheumatoid arthritis (1)
27
What is a vaccine? (2)
- Injection of a dead form of pathogen (1) - Stimulate primary immune response without illness (1)
28
How do antibiotics work? (1)
- Interferes with bacterial cell walls and ribosomes (1)
29
Why doesn't antibiotics affect viruses? (1)
- Viruses don't have cell walls or ribosomes (1)
30
Why doesn't antibiotics affect human cells? (2)
- Human cells don't have cell walls (1) - Ribosomes bigger than those found in bacteria (1)
31
How does antibiotic resistance work? (2)
- Random mutation occurs (1) - Bacteria will survive and reproduce more of the resistant gene (1)
32
How is antibiotic resistance controlled? (2)
- Rotated use of different antibiotics (1) - Avoiding overuse for minor infections (1)
33
How are sources of medicine protected? (2)
- By maintaining biodiversity (1) - As antibiotics synthesized from plants, fungi and bacteria (1)
34
What's the future of medicine? (2)
- Personalized medicine based on genetic profiles (1) - Synthetic biology of cellular compounds (1)
35
What is meant by 'biodiversity'? (2)
- The variety of living organisms in the area (1) - High means many species present (1)
36
What is meant by habitat and community? (2)
- Habitat is where an organism lives (1) - Community is all the species in a habitat that interact with each other (1)
37
What are the different ways biodiversity can be defined to? (3)
- Species diversity (1) - Habitat diversity (1) - Genetic diversity (1)
38
What is meant by genetic diversity? (1)
- The number of different alleles within a population (1)
39
How is the population size of immobile species measured? (3)
- Large number of quadrats (1) - Habitat taped out (1) - Coordinates plotted with a random number generator (1)
40
What is a transect? (1)
- A straight line across a habitat (1)
41
How and why would quadrats be placed non randomly? (4)
- Systematic sampling (1) - Quadrats placed one next to each other along a transect (1) - Where there is an environmental gradient (1) - Which is a change in abiotic factors (1)
42
How is species diversity measured? (3)
- Calculate the index of diversity of a habitat (1) - Takes number of different species and abundance into account (1) - The closer the value to 1, the more biodiverse (1)
43
What is meant by species evenness? (1)
- Relative abundance of each species in a community (1)
44
What does it mean if genetic diversity is low? (2)
- Unable to adapt to changing environmental conditions (1) - Vulnerable to extinction (1)
45
What is meant by species richness? (1)
- Number of different species present in a community (1)
46
How is genetic diversity measured? (2)
- Genetic polymorphism (1) Proportion of polymorphic gene loci = number of polymorphic gene loci / total number of loci (1)
47
What is meant by polymorphism? (1)
- Where the position of the chromosome has two or more alleles (1)
48
How have humans contributed in the reduction of biodiversity? (5)
- Deforestation (1) - Pollution (1) - Invasive species (1) - Hunting (1) - Climate change (1)
49
How does agriculture reduce biodiversity? (3)
- Herbicides used to kill weeds reduces plant biodiversity (1) - And reduces food source for primary consumers (1) - Monoculture replaces many species with just one (1)
50
Why is maintaining biodiversity important? (4)
- Protects keystone species that drastically affects the ecosystem (1) - Maintains genetic resources used in medicine (1) - Reduces soil depletion (1) - Natural beauty promotes jobs from tourism (1)
51
What are the types of conservation? (4)
- In situ conservation (1) - Protecting species in their natural habitat (1) - Ex situ conservation (1) - Placing species in a new environment (1)
52
What are the examples of in situ conservation? (2)
- Establishing natural reserves (1) - Legal protection to endangered species (1)
53
What are the examples of ex situ conservation? (2)
- Captive breeding in zoos (1) - Seed banks to replace extinct plants (1)
54
What are the pros and cons of in situ conservation? (3)
- Cheaper to maintain (1) - More successful in terms of breeding programs (1) - Disease and predation are more difficult to control (1)
55
What are the laws that help conserve species? (6)
- Convention on international trade in endangered species (CITES) (1) - International agreement to make it illegal to kill or trade endangered species (1) - Rio convention of biological diversity (CBD) (1) - Develops guidance for governments to use resources sustainably (1) - UK Country stewardship scheme (CSS) (1) - Paid landowners to implement techniques (growing hedgerows) to increase biodiversity (1)
56
What is taxonomy? (2)
- The grouping of organisms based on their characteristics (1) - With the first group being the most broad (1)
57
What are the 8 taxonomic groups + mnemonic?
Dear King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
58
What are the 5 kingdoms all living organisms are grouped into? (5)
- Animal (1) - Plant (1) - Fungi (1) - Protoctista (1) - Bacteria (1)
59
What is the binomial system? (2)
- Naming system for organisms (1) - Uses the genus and species (1)
60
What is phylogeny? (2)
- Study of molecules to determine organisms relatedness (1) - The closer on the phylogenic tree, the more DNA bases they have in common (1)
61
What is all the evidence used for classification? (4)
- Molecular evidence (1) - Embryological evidence (1) - Behavioral evidence (1) - Anatomical evidence (1)
62
Whats the three domain system? (3)
- A broader classification than the 5 kingdoms (1) - Bacteria is separated into the two domains: Bacteria and Archaea due to differences in plasma membranes and flagella (1) - The domain eukarya consists of the other four kingdoms and is closer related to archaea (1)
63
What is variation and what is it caused by? (3)
- Ranges of phenotypes such as height (1) - Genetic factor such as alleles inherited (1) - Environmental such as diet (1)
64
What are the types of variation? (4)
- Interspecific variation (1) - Variation between different species (1) - Intraspecific variation (1) - Variation within species (1)
65
What is discontinuous variation? (3)
- Characteristics controlled by a single gene known as monogenic (1) - Grouped into distinct categories such as blood type (1) - Put onto a bar graph (1)
66
What is continuous variation? (3)
- Characteristics controlled by many genes at different loci known as polygenic (1) - Group into a ranged category such as height and weight (1) - Put onto a line graph (1)
67
What are the types of adaptation? (6)
- Behavioural adaptation (1) - Way organism acts (1) - Physiological adaptation (1) - Processes within the body (1) - Anatomical adaptation (1) - Structural features (1)
68
What is convergent evolution? (2)
- Different taxonomic groups developing similar characteristics (1) - Due to evolving from similar environments (1)
69
How does natural selection occur? (2)
- Gene mutation causes new alleles to appear (1) - More likely to survive and reproduced (1)
70
What is the evidence for evolution? (3)
Changes in: - Fossils (1) - DNA (1) - Molecules (1)

Biology (14 decks)

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