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Biology > Module 5 (2/2) > Flashcards

Module 5 (2/2) Flashcards

(60 cards)

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1
Q

How is the nervous system divided? (4)

A
  • Central nervous system (1)
    • Brain and Spinal cord (1)
  • Peripheral nervous system (1)
    • Nerves that connect CNS to rest
      of body (1)
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2
Q

How is the peripheral nervous system divided? (4)

A
  • Somatic nervous system (1)
    • Controls conscious activities (1)
  • Autonomic nervous system (1)
    • Controls unconscious activities (1)
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3
Q

How is the autonomic nervous system divided? (4)

A
  • Sympathetic nervous system (1)
    • ‘Fight or Flight’ response (1)
  • Parasympathetic nervous system (1)
    • ‘Rest and Digest’ response (1)
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4
Q

What is the cerebrum? (3)

A
  • Large top region of the brain (1)
  • Involved in higher brain function (1)
    • E.G. thinking/vision/emotions (1)
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5
Q

What is the hypothalamus? (3)

A
  • Small region below cerebrum (1)
  • Involved in homeostatic response (1)
  • Controls the pituitary gland (1)
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6
Q

What is the cerebellum? (2)

A
  • Leaf like region at the back of the brain (1)
  • Involved in movement and balance (1)
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7
Q

What is the medulla oblongata? (2)

A
  • Above the spinal cord (1)
  • Involved in unconscious processes (1)
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8
Q

What are reflexes? (1)

A
  • Rapid, unconscious movement to protect
    from harm (1)
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9
Q

How is damage to the eye prevented? (3)

A
  • Sensory receptors in cornea stimulated (1)
  • Impulse travels from both CNS to orbicularis
    oculi muscle (1)
  • Blinking reflex action (1)
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10
Q

How is leg imbalance prevented? (3)

A
  • Stretch receptors in quadriceps stimulated (1)
  • Impulse travels from spinal cord to quadriceps muscle
    (1)
  • Knee jerk reflex action (1)
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11
Q

How does a fight or flight response come about? (4)

A
  • Pituitary gland releases hormone ACTH which stimulates steroid
    hormones in adrenal cortex (1)
  • Sympathetic nervous system stimulates adrenaline from adrenal
    medulla (1)
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12
Q

What does the flight or flight response cause? (3)

A
  • Redirects blood flow from digestive system to muscles
    and brain (1)
  • Stimulates glycogenolysis - breakdown of glycogen
    into glucose (1)
  • Erector pilli muscles contract (1)
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13
Q

What controls changing heart rate? (1)

A
  • A region of the medulla oblongata called the
    cardiovascular control centre (1)
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14
Q

What receptors lead to the modification of heart rate? (2)

A
  • Chemoreceptor detects changes in oxygen
    concentration (1)
  • Baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure (1)
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15
Q

What happens when concentration and pressure is too low in the body? (3)

A
  • Medulla oblongata activates sympathetic nervous
    system (1)
  • Neurotransmitter noradrenaline produced (1)
  • Binds to SAN to increase rate of firing for increased
    heart rate (1)
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16
Q

What happens when concentration and pressure is too high in the body? (3)

A
  • Medulla oblongata activates parasympathetic nervous
    system (1)
  • Neurotransmitter acetylcholine produced (1)
  • Binds to SAN to decrease rate of firing for decreased
    heart rate (1)
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17
Q

Whats the student T test? (1)

A
  • Determines if two mean sets are significantly different (1)
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18
Q

What is null hypothesis? (1)

A
  • Statement that explains how there is no significant difference
    between observable and expected results (1)
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19
Q

How do you work out critical value and what does it mean? (3)

A
  • Degrees of freedom = (Total samples - 1) at 0.05% probability (1)
  • T value below critical value accepts null hypothesis and any variation
    is from chance (1)
  • T value equal or above critical value rejects null hypothesis as
    something other than chance is causing difference (1)
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20
Q

What are the types of muscle? (3)

A
  • Skeletal muscle (1)
  • Smooth muscle (1)
  • Cardiac muscle (1)
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21
Q

Whats the structure of muscles? (3)

A
  • Made up of bundles of muscle fibres (1)
  • Skeletal and cardiac have long cylinders called
    myofibrils that allow fibres to contract (1)
  • Myofibrils made up of many sarcomeres (1)
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22
Q

Whats the structure of sarcomeres? (5)

A
  • Thick myosin found as A-Band (1)
  • Thin actin found as I-Band (1)
  • Ends of sarcomere is Z line that connects them
    together (1)
  • M line is the middle of the sarcomere (1)
  • H zone is the area where only myosin is and not overlapped with
    actin (1)
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23
Q

How do muscle fibres contract? (3)

A
  • Myosin and Actin slide over each other (1)
  • Makes sarcomere shorter (1)
  • Microfilaments stay the same length (1)
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24
Q

What happens when a muscle is not contracted? (2)

A
  • Tropomyosin covers myosin-actin binding
    site (1)
  • troponin keeps the site in place (1)
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25
What happens when an action potential reaches a muscle fibre? (6)
- Wave of depolarisation reaches T-tubules (1) - Stimulates sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions (1) - Ions bind to troponin to change its shape and pulls tropomyosin out of myosin-actin binding site, allowing a myosin-actin cross bridge to form (1) - Calcium ion release activates ATPase to catalyse the hydrolysis of ATP (1) - The energy produced is used for power stroke and breaking a myosin-actin cross bridge (1) - The myosin head repeatedly reattaches further along the actin causing muscle contraction (1)
26
What is meant by power-stroke? (1)
- The movement of myosins head on an actin (1)
27
What happens when muscles are no longer stimulated? (2)
- Calcium ions travel back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport (1) - Actin slides back into its original position (1)
28
What is phosphocreatine? (2)
- Stored in muscles and ATP is produced by phosphorylating ADP with its phosphate group (1) - Anaerobic and alactic (1)
29
What are neuromuscular junctions? (3)
- Synapse between a motor neuron and muscle cell (1) - Neurotransmitter acetylcholine is always excitatory and not inhibitory (1) - Nicotinic cholinergic receptors contain more receptors (1)
30
What's the difference between smooth and skeletal muscle? (4)
- Skeletal is voluntary smooth is involuntary (1) - Skeletal contract quickly but fatigue slowly while smooth contracts slowly but does not fatigue (1) - Skeletal is striated while smooth is spindle shaped (1) - Skeletal is multinucleated while smooth muscle contains one nucleus (1)
31
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle (3)
- Less striated appearance (1) - Single nucleus (1) - Contracts rhythmically and doesn't fatigue (1)
32
How do you measure muscle fatigue? (2)
- Attach electrodes to record line fluctuations on electromyogram (1) - Connect an electrode on a muscle that isn't being moved as control and turn off electrical equipment (1)
33
What are the 4 stages of aerobic respiration? (4)
- Glycolysis (1) - Link reaction (1) - Oxidative Phosphorylation (1) - Krebs cycle (1)
34
What is glycolysis? (2)
- Converts glucose (6-carbon molecule) into two pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) (1) - Anaerobic process that occurs in the cytoplasm (1)
35
What are the steps of glycolysis? (2)
- Glucose is phosphorylated using 2 molecules of ATP to form two 3-carbon molecules triose phosphate called TP (1) - The 2 TP are oxidized into pyruvate while 2 coenzymes NAD are reduced into reduced NAD (1)
36
What is the gain of ATP during glycolysis? (2)
- 4 molecules are produced when TP is converted while 2 ATP moleucles were used during phosphorylation (1) - Net gain of 2 ATP molecules (1)
37
What is the link reaction? (2)
- Converts pyruvate into acetyl coenzyme A and produces more reduced NAD (1) - No ATP produced and occurs in the mitochondrial matrix (1)
38
What are the steps of the link reaction? (4)
- Carbon atom is removed from pyruvate, forming CO2 and 2-carbon molecule acetate (1) - Hydrogen is also removed during conversion to acetate, forming reduced NAD (1) - Acetate combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A (1) - This happens twice for every one glucose molecule (1)
39
What is the Krebs cycle? (2)
- Series of reactions to produce more reduced NAD and FAD for oxidative phosphorylation (1) - Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix (1)
40
What are the steps of the Krebs cycle? (4)
- Acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate to form 6-carbon citrate with some Acetyl CoA being reused in the link reaction (1) - Citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated twice back to oxaloacetate (1) - In one cycle: ATP, 3 Reduced NAD, 2 CO2 and 1 Reduced FAD - This cycle occurs 2 times per glucose molecule (1)
41
What is oxidative phosphorylation? (2)
- Stage where the most ATP is made using reduced NAD and FAD produced (1) - Takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane (1)
42
What are the steps of the Oxidative Phosphorylation? (5)
- Coenzymes reduced NAD and FAD release hydrogen atoms that split into hydrogen ions and electrons (1) - Electrons pass along many electron carriers called the electron transport chain and lose energy (1) - Energy is used to pump hydrogen ions and form a proton gradient across the membrane (1) - Electrons will move down this gradient across the membrane and produce ATP as it flows past ATP synthase (1) - Electrons pass onto the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain to form water (1)
43
What is the total ATP production of aerobic respiration of a glucose molecule? (2)
- 38 molecules of ATP (1) - Each reduced NAD providing 3 ATP molecules and each FAD producing 2 ATP molecules (1)
44
How does anaerobic respiration produce ATP? (3)
- Only the step of glycolysis occurs (1) - The 2 reduced NAD produced are oxidised back to NAD and convert 2 pyruvate into 2 lactate (1) - This means glycolysis can repeated with NAD available at the cost of lactate build up (1)
45
How is lactate reconverted into glucose? (1)
- Liver cells (1)
46
What is pyruvate converted to during anaerobic respiration in plants? (2)
- Carbon dioxide (1) - Ethanol (1)
47
Which respiratory substrates release the most energy during respiration and why? (3)
- Lipids, then proteins then carbohydrates (1) - More energy comes from more hydrogen per unit mass (1) - More electrons in the electron transport chain (1)
48
What's respiratory quotient? (2)
- Lower RQ suggests fat substrate while high suggests carbohydrates (1) - CO2 produced / O2 consumed (1)
49
How do you measure the rate of respiration? (3)
50
How do you measure rate of respiration? (2)
- Respirometer measures the amount of O2 used up (1) - Manometer containing colored liquid moving towards the respiring test tube as O2 is consumed (1) - A second control test tube with glass beads the same mass as the respiring organism (1) - Potassium hydroxide in both test tubes to absorb CO2 and ensure manometer movement is from O2 only (1)
51
What is the structure of chloroplasts? (3)
- Thylakoids stacked to form grana (1) - Grana connected by lamellae (1) - Fluid stroma cover these thylakoids (1)
52
What are autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms? (2)
- Autotrophic = organisms that photosynthesise (1) - Heterotrophic = organisms that dont photosynthesise (1)
53
What happens in the light dependent reaction? (3)
- Takes place in the thylakoid membranes (1) - Light harvested to produce ATP and reduced NADP - Water is split forming oxygen (1)
54
What happens in the light independent reaction? (3)
- Takes place in the stroma (1) - Products from light dependent and CO2 are used to produce glucose (1)
55
What are photosystems made up of? (2)
- Primary and accessory pigments and their proteins (1) - From their reactions centre and light harvesting system (1)
56
What are the 2 photosystems? (2)
- PSI absorbs 700nm wavelength (1) - PSII absorbs 680nm wavelength (1)
57
Differences of cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation? (2)
- In cyclic, PSI absorbs light, pass through electron transport chain and return to PSI to continue producing ATP (1) - In Non-cyclic, PSII absorbs light with electrons not being returned and instead replaces through the splitting of water called photolysis (1)
58
How is a proton gradient generated in non-cyclic phosphorylation? (3)
- Photolysis produces protons in thylakoid interior (1) - Proton in stroma is used to form reduced NADP (1) - Electron transport chain pumps H+ into thylakoid interior (1)
59
Explain chemiosmosis? (3)
- Proton gradient established (1) - Protons exit inside through ATP synthase ion channel (1) - Produces ATP from ADP and Pi (1)
60
Explain the calvin cycle during the light independent reaction? (4)
Fixation: - CO2 reacts with RuBP catalysed by RuBisCO to form 2 GP (1) Reduction: - 2 GP reduced by products of light dependent to form 2 TP with some TP being used to make amino acids/lipids (1) Regeneration: - RuBP is regenerated with TP and ATP to allow cycle to repeat. 6 calvin cycle turns produce glucose (1)

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