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new shit fo final Flashcards

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1
Q

How does the stomach not digest itself?

A

The alkaline mucosal lining

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2
Q

What is chyme?

A

Food particles + gastric secretions

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3
Q

How is the stomach able to size select what passes to the small intestines?

A

pyloric sphinctor

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4
Q

What does the small intestine do?

A

Small intestines absorb nutrients. Pancreatic juice plus bile is added in the duodenum

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5
Q

How is the absorption of fats different from other molecules?

A

they need to be emulsified with bile salts before being absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries because they’re water insoluable

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6
Q

Why is the production of bicarbonate so important?

A

Bicarbonate neutralizes acidic chyme as it enters the small intestines

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7
Q

What else does the pancreas secrete to aid in digestion?

A

bicarbonate: neutralizes acid in chyme
Proteases: trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase
Fat digestion: lipase, lysopholipase, cholesterol esterase
Nucleic acid digestion: ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease

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8
Q

What is a pancreatic acinus?

A

a pancreatic cell that secretes digestive enzymes as an aqueous solution

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9
Q

what are Acinar cells doing

A

(in the pancreas) secrete the enzymes (all of which are proteins)

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10
Q

what are Duct cells doing

A

secreting bicarbonate

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11
Q

Trypsinogen is an example of a zymogen. What is that? How is it activated?

A

A zymogen is an inactive form of an enzyme. Most pancreatic enzymes are produced as zymogens.
trypsinogen is turned into trypsin in the presence of enterokinase

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12
Q

What is enterokinase and where is it found? Is it important?

A

Enterokinase (an enzyme itself) is present within intestinal microvilli and converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin enzyme. Once active, trypsin activates other enzymes.

It is found within the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells lining the duodenum.

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13
Q

where is bile produced and stored

A

Bile is constantly secreted by the liver and stored/concentrated by the Gall bladder

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14
Q

What is the first pass effect?

A

Detoxification of harmful compounds before entering into general circulation
(Stuff absorbed through the small intestines into the hepatic portal circulation must pass through the liver before entering general circulation, they get detoxified in the liver. )

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15
Q

What happens in the large intestines?

A

Receives undigestable material (fiber) from the small intestine. Absorbs water and ions, houses gut microbiome

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16
Q

why is the gut microbiome important

A
  1. Defense against pathogenic microorganisms
  2. Production of short-chain fatty acids which are important for colonic health and function
  3. Energy regulation
  4. Vitamin synthesis
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17
Q

What do antibiotics do to our gut microbiome?

A

Can alter the composition of gut microbiota for up to two years and by disrupting healthy flora (=dysbiosis)

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18
Q

Abnormalities in microbiota are associated with? (6)

A
  • Obesity and other metabolic diseases
  • Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
  • Allergic disorders
  • Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)
  • Colonization by multiple drug-resistant organisms (MDRO)
  • Neuropsychiatric illnesses
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19
Q

What is a fecal transplant?

A

The introduction of donor microbiota alters the gut microbiota of the recipient.

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20
Q

Where do ulcers come from?

A

Helicobacter pylori

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21
Q

What are some of the functions of the kidney? (6)

A
  • Maintain the water balance of the body
  • Regulate the concentration of electrolytes in the plasma
  • Maintain proper volume of the plasma, (blood pressure)
  • Regulate pH of the blood plasma
  • Maintain proper osmolarity of the blood plasma
  • Excrete toxic by-products of metabolic reactions such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine
  • Excrete toxins are absorbed from the environment in foods, drugs, etc.
  • Secrete the hormone erythropoietin
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22
Q

what does erythropoietin (EPO) do?

A

Stimulates the production of new red blood cells (RBCs)

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23
Q

What does renin do?

A

Cuts angiotensinogen into the shorter peptide known as angiotensin I.

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24
Q

What is obligatory water loss? why?

A
  • 400-500 ml of urine/day will be produced regardless of intake
  • This is because your body has to continuously filter and purify the blood plasma.
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25
Kidney tubules are made of what?
Epithelial cells rolled into tubes.
26
How does blood flow to the kidneys relate to the size of the kidneys?
22% of cardiac output goes to the kidneys (1% of body weight)
27
Why do the kidneys get so much blood?
bc the blood needs to be filtered
28
How does urine flow?
peristalsis renal pelvis --> ureters --> bladder
29
How does urine move down the ureters to the bladder?
peristaltic contractions
30
Structure of the nephron:
- The glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule - The kidney tubule - All of the associated capillaries
31
What is the vasa recta?
a group of blood vessels in the kidney that supply oxygen and nutrients to the medulla and also help regulate urine concentration.
32
Afferent vs efferent arterioles
Afferent arteriole feeds blood into the glomerulus Efferent arteriole exists to shuttle filtered blood from the glomerulus back into the main circulation.
33
How does blood plasma get filtered into the proximal convoluted tubule? Where does it go after that point?
after that it goes Through the glomerulus, then through the efferent arteriole which then branches into a network of capillaries called the peritubular capillaries
34
what is the filter apparatus
fenestrae, extracellular basement membrane, slit diaphragms located between adjacent pedicels
35
How are proteins retained in the blood plasma?
proteins can't pass through the basement membrane (both are negatively charged)
36
What is happening in the descending limb of the loop of henle?
water reabsorbed
37
What is happening in the acending limb of the loop of henle?
salts reabsorbed
38
Where can excess potassium be added so it will be excreted in urine?
collecting duct
39
How is urine concentrated? This has to do with the collecting ducts, what happens here?
Concentrated urine enables the body to retain water and not become dehydrated, all while forming the urine and thereby eliminating wastes and toxins.
40
What is the relationship between ADH and aquaporin channels?
ADH=aquaporin channels inserted. more aquaporin channels=more water reabsorption
41
What does the juxtaglomerular apparatus do?
The function of the J-G Apparatus is to regulate blood pressure by increasing N+ reabsorption, constricting arterioles, and increasing H2O intake
42
Does the Renin-Angiotensinogen-Aldosterone system increase or decrease blood pressure?
Increases blood pressure.
43
Does ANP do the same thing as renin?
No, they have opposite effects. ANP decreases blood pressure
44
Why is it said that urine from a diabetes mellitus patient would attract ants?
Because the urine contains extra sugar.
45
Type 1 diabetes
Type 1: “Insulin-dependent DM” Due to insufficient secretion of insulin
46
Type 2 diabetes
Type 2: “Non-Insulin-dependent DM” Due to insufficient response to insulin.
47
Gestational diabetes mellitus
Results when a mother’s pancreatic beta cells cannot secrete enough insulin to meet the needs of both mother and fetus - Usually resolves after delivery.
48
There are five steps that exist between insulin binding to a receptor and glucose being taken up by cells. What happens if something in the process doesn’t work?
insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes M)
49
How does exercise reduce glucose concentrations in the blood?
during skeletal muscle contraction, muscle cells can take in glucose without insulin.
50
What role does adipose tissue play in insulin resistance?
fat cells can secrete many different hormones that actually promote insulin-resistance. also plasma is inversely related to the amount of body fat
51
What are adipokines? Which ones will reduce insulin resistance?
adipokines= hormones secreted by fat cells insulin resistance reducers= Adiponectin, Apelin
52
Is diabetes insipidus (DI) the same as diabetes mellitus (DM)? What is polyuria? Which one is it found in (DI or DM)?
no polyuria=lots of pee found in both
53
Neurogenic diabetes insipidus (DI)
- “arising from the nervous system” - Caused by insufficient secretion of ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) from the posterior pituitary gland - ADH makes kidney tubules reclaim more water from the forming urine.
54
Nephrogenic DI
Nephrogenic means related to the kidney caused by a failure of the kidneys to respond appropriately to ADH
55
Primary sex organs
testes/ovaries (gonads)
56
Secondary sex organs
Male: system of ducts, glands; penis Female: uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina .
57
why does the vagina need a microbiome?
A low pH environment is maintained.
58
During development of the embryo, what causes the development of mesonephric ducts (Wolffian ducts)?
SRY gene (in Y chromosome) codes for testes-determining factor. if TDF present, testes develop testes secrete testosterone which causes mesonephric ducts to develop
59
What causes the development of paramesonephric ducts (Müllerian ducts)?
no testes-determining factor (TDF) present means no testes grow to secrete testosterone so the paramesonephric ducts never degenerate
60
What is TDF?
Testes-determining factors (TDF) that initiate the development of testes.
61
What is cryptorchidism?
a condition in which one or both of the testes fail to descend from the abdomen into the scrotum.
62
why is the penis is homologous to the clitoris?
They both develop from the same embryonic tissue in the early stages of female development.
63
What is the scrotum homologous to?
The labia majora
64
Gonadotropins will cause the gonads to secrete what?
Gonadotropins stimulate the gonads to secrete sex hormones like estrogen and progesterone in females, and testosterone in males Hormones are not constant.
65
How do sperm form in the seminiferous tubules?
seminiferous tubules contain sertoli cells which have receptors of FSH, which stimulates spermatogenesis
66
Where would you find the least developed sperm?
seminiferous tubules
67
Where would you find the most developed sperm?
the epididymis ppt. says next to the lumen with developing tails extended into lumen
68
What do sertoli cells do?
They respond to FSH which stimulates spermatogenesis
69
What do leydig cells do?
have receptors for LH which stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone
70
Four sperm result every time a primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis, how many eggs result? Why is this?
Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte. Less developed sperm (spermatogonia) are the periphery of the seminiferous tubule, and the more developed sperm are next to the lumen with their developing tails extended into the lumen.
71
How many eggs does a female have at birth?
~1~2 million oocytes.
72
How many eggs are present during puberty?
~400,000 oocytes.
73
Once at puberty, what stage of meiosis are eggs at? When do they finish meiosis II?
at puberty- finish Meiosis I only finish meiosis II when fertalized
74
How long does it take an egg to mature to the point they can be released (ovulated)?
almost a year.
75
What determines which follicle will be the dominant one that gets released?
Follicle size, number of granulosa cells (supporting cells), Number of FSH receptors on the granulosa cells.
76
Follicular phase?
- Begins on the first day of menstruation - The follicle matures and releases an egg - Ends with ovulation
77
Luteal phase?
- Beings with ovulation - Corpus luteum development - Ends with either pregnancy or degradation of the corpus luteum
78
Menses' Phase?
- The endometrium is shed (bleeding) - Lasts two to seven days. - Triggered by low hormone levels (estrogen and progesterone)
79
Proliferative Phase
- Endometrium begins to thicken - Phase ends after ovulation (day fourteen) - Triggered by increased estrogen levels
80
Secretory phase
- The endometrium prepares for implantation - Progesterone secreted for endometrium maintenance
81
Layers of the uterus?
Endometrium Myometrium Perimetrium
82
What role do fimbria play? Is the ovary attached to the fallopian tube?
fimbra are little fingers on the openings of fallopian tubes to catch the ovum. ovary is NOT attached
83
How long do eggs have to be fertilized?
24 hours or they will die
84
When does an egg complete meiosis II?
when fertilized
85
How do sperm get out of the body? Do you understand the pathway of sperm?
- Sperm are produced in testes. - When sperm have developed flagella they leave seminiferous tubules and enter epididymis where they mature. - They leave the epididymis and enter the vas deferens. - When stimulated, sperm is carried to behind the bladder where it will mix with seminal fluid (secretions from seminal vesicle, prostate and bulbourethral gland) and leave through the urethra.
86
A. After leaving the seminiferous tubules the sperm still need to mature, where do they go? B. Where do the vas deferens take the sperm? C. Why must they travel to behind the bladder?
A. They enter the epididymis to mature. B. The epididymis to the urethra. C. It must travel behind the bladder because this is where the seminal vesicles are located.
87
Seminal vesicles
- Produce 45-80% semen volume - Seminal fluid has fructose that nourishes the sperm
88
Prostate gland
- 15-30% semen volume - Prostatic fluid has citric acid (a buffer), calcium, and coagulation proteins.
89
Bulbourethral glands
- Contributes only a small proportion - Also called Cowper’s glands - Lubricates urethra for semen passage - Neutralized acidity from urine - Might have some sperm in there.
90
There are no bones in the penis or the clitoris, but they can become erect. How is this possible?
Parasympathetic nerves secrete acetylcholine (ACh) - ACh causes nitric oxide (NO) production. - NO activates guanylyl cyclase (GC) enzyme. - GC produces cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). - cGMP closes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the smooth muscle walls of arterioles within the penis (or clitoris). - cGMP relaxes smooth muscle cells by decreasing cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration. - Relaxation of smooth muscle allows arteriole walls to expand and allow more blood flow into the penis (or clitoris), which are both hydrostatic organs
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