NUMS exam 2 Flashcards
(135 cards)
1
Q
Normal gestation period in humans is about _________ days
A
270-280
2
Q
During the menstrual cycle, after the female gamete is released from the ovary in ovulation, the remains of the follicle secrets:
A
progesterone
3
Q
In the male reproductive system, the hormone involved in the regulation of the rate of spermatogenesis is called:
A
FSH
- The hormone involved in the regulation of the rate of spermatogenesis in the male reproductive system is Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). It stimulates the development and maturation of sperm cells in the testes.
4
Q
cervix
A
lower, narrow part of the uterus (between the uterus and vagina)
5
Q
suture
A
immovable junction between 2 bones, such as the skull
6
Q
smooth muscle
A
long and spindle with one nucleus per cell
- lack striations
- also called involuntary muscle
7
Q
living characteristics of viruses
A
- ability to reproduce (only in living host cells)
- ability to mutate their genetic material
8
Q
A group of organisms with similar morphology and physiology. which can breed together to produce fertile offspring is called:
A
species
9
Q
If oxygen is available, the complete breakdown of glucose produces _____ ATP molecules in prokaryotes
A
38
2 from glycolysis, 2 from Krebs, and 34 from electron transport chain
10
Q
where does respiration occur in prokaryotes and do they have glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and ETC?
A
entire process occurs in cytoplasm because no mitochondria in prokaryotes
and yes, they have all 3 of those processes
11
Q
products of light dependent reactions of photosynthesis
A
ATP, oxygen, reduced NADP (NADPH)
12
Q
In the process of photosynthesis water acts as an
A
electron donor & reducing agent
- electron donor: water splits in the light dependent reactions to create protons, electrons, and oxygen
- reducing agent: provides H+ ions to NADP+ to become NADPH
13
Q
End product of Calvin cycle Is:
A
Glyceraldehyde -3-phosphate (G3P), ADP, and NADP+
14
Q
collagen molecules contain _________
A
amino acids
15
Q
hydrolysis is breaking down polymers into monomers with the addition of
A
water
16
Q
heat of vaporization vs heat capacity
A
heat of vaporization is how related to phase change - amount of energy it takes to convert one gram of liquid into gas without changing temperature
heat capacity is related to how much heat the liquid can absorb before temperature changes
17
Q
how does water’s high heat capacity help mammals
A
works as a cooling system
- used by warm blooded animals to more evenly disperse heat in their bodies
18
Q
Which molecule does not contribute to the formation of biological membranes?
A
biological membrane - think cell membrane
nucleoproteins: nucleoprotein of negative-strand RNA virus forms a major component of the ribonucleoprotein complex that is responsible for viral transcription and replication
19
Q
Which of the following molecules would yield glucose and fructose on hydrolysis: starch, maltose, sucrose, lactose?
A
sucrose because it’s a disaccharide made of glucose and fructose molecules both
starch: polysaccharide made of many glucose units; it yields glucose upon hydrolysis.
maltose: disaccharide made of two glucose molecules; it yields glucose upon hydrolysis.
lactose: disaccharide made of glucose and galactose; it yields these two sugars upon hydrolysis
20
Q
telomere
A
terminal ends of chromosomes
- protect end of chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes
21
Q
kinetochores
A
protein structures that form on the centromere of each chromosome (region where 2 sister chromatids are held together)
function: crucial during cell division, attach chromosomes to spindle fibers, which pull chromosomes apart to opposite sides of the cell, making sure each new cell gets the correct number of chromosomes
22
Q
nucleolar organizers
A
segments of chromosomes that contain the genes for ribosomal RNA, and are responsible for forming the nucleolus
- contain genes that code for ribosomal RNA (rRNA), key component of ribosomes (cell’s protein factories)
function: site where ribosomal RNA is synthesized and combined with proteins to form ribosomes
so, help form the nucleolus, which produces ribosomes
23
Q
satellites (chromosomes)
A
it actually looks like a satellite attached to the end of a chromosome!!
small segments of DNA attached to the end of some chromosomes by a thin stalk called secondary constriction
function: while satellites themselves don’t have a specific function, their presence is often associated with nucleolar organizer regions, helping to identify chromosomes that are involved in forming the nucleolus.
24
Q
synaptic cleft
A
The gap between neurons at a synapse
- where neurotransmitters travel across to carry the signal from one neuron to the next
25
synaptic knob, synaptic delay, and synaptic vesicle
**synaptic knob**: the rounded end of a neuron where it connects to another cell
- where neurotransmitters are released
**synaptic delay**: slight time lag that occurs when a signal is transmitted across the synaptic cleft
- delay caused by time it takes for neurotransmitters to be released
**synaptic vesicle**: tiny sacs found inside the synaptic knob that store neurotransmitters and release when the neuron is activated
26
function of thalamus, amygdala, & hippocampus
**Thalamus**: Sensory relay station.
**Hippocampus**: Memory and learning.
**Amygdala**: Emotions, especially fear and pleasure.
27
function of the hypothalamus
regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, sleep, and hormones
controls **pituitary gland** which influences growth and metabolism
28
function of cerebrum (frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe) & Cerebellum
**Cerebrum**: Thinking, emotions, voluntary movements
- **frontal**: planning, decision making, problem solving
- **parietal**: touch, temp, pain, spatial orientation
- **temporal**: hearing, memory, understanding language
- **occipital**: vision
**Cerebellum: Balance, coordination.
29
function of brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla)
**Brainstem: Vital functions like breathing and heartbeat.
- **midbrain**: vision, hearing, motor control
- **pons**: relays messages between different parts of the brain and helps regulate breathing
- **medulla**: vital functions like heart rate, blood pressure, breathing
30
axon
long extension of nerve cell (the body part thats wrapped in myelin sheath)
- transmits electrical signals from neuron's cell body to other cells
31
what are Schwann cells
they produce myelin which forms the myelin sheath
- also provide support and protection to neurons
- also assist in the repair of damaged cells
32
steroid hormones + how to identify them
**steroid hormone**: derived from cholesterol
identified by name because end in either -one or -ol
and also the sex hormones are all steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone)
33
meaning of alkaline
basic, pH above 7
34
how to tell if an enzyme is alkaline or not
enzymes that work in the stomach like pepsin work under acidic conditions or like sucrase which breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
enzymes in the small intestine (like pancreatic lipase) work under alkaline conditions
35
minimum temperature for enzymes
when inactive enzymes get reactivated
36
function of these enzymes: amylase, erypsin, lactase, carboxypeptidase
**amylase**: breaks down starch into simpler sugars like maltose
**erypsin**: breaks down proteins into amino acids
**lactase**: breaks down lactose (the sugar in milk) into glucose and galactose
**carboxypeptidase**: also involved in protein digestion, breaking down peptides into amino acids
37
carl linnaeus
developed system of naming, ranking, and classifying organisms, known as taxonomy
38
hardy-weinberg principle
relates to genetics and describes how allele frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences
39
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
proposed an earlier theory of evolution, suggesting that organisms could pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring (inheritance of acquired characteristics), but his ideas were later replaced by Darwin's theory.
40
Magnesium is an important nutrient in plants for the formation of
chlorophylls
- the green pigment in plant that are crucial for photosynthesis
- magnesium is a central atom in the chlorophyll molecule
41
Which of the following parts of the respiratory system has no cartilage?
(how to tell without knowing)
bronchioles
- larger, more central airways (like trachea and bronchi) have more cartilage to keep them open, smaller and more distal parts (like bronchioles) typically have less structural support
42
The horizontal distance travelled by wave during one complete cycle Is called
wavelength
43
Loudness of the sound is directly related to
intensity of the sound
measured in decibels (dB)
43
chief cells, oxyntic cells (parietal cells), mucus cells, & endocrine cells
**chief cells**: secrete pepsinogen, inactive form of enzyme pepsin
**oxyntic cells (parietal cells)**: secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor, not enzymes
**mucus cells**: secrete mucus that protects the stomach lining from the acidic environment
**endocrine cells**: secrete hormones like gastrin, which regulates function of other gastric cells but do not directly secrete enzymes
44
the relation between radian and degree is
1 radian = 57.3º
45
Golgi complex (or Golgi apparatus)
organelle involved in modifying, packaging, and sorting proteins and lipids that are synthesized in the cell
46
centrioles
made of microtubules and are involved in cilia, flagella and cell division
47
vacuole
- found in plant cells
- storage and maintaining turgor pressure
48
secretory cell vs non secretory cell
**secretory cell**: specialized to produce and release substances, such as enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other proteins, either into the bloodstream, into a duct, or directly into the external environment
- *have more rough endoplasmic reticulum (to synthesize proteins), Golgi complex (to modify, sort, and package the proteins), and vesicles*
**non secretory cell**: have various functions but do not specialize in the production and release of large amounts of substances
49
which structure disappears during cell division
**the nucleus**
nucleolus and nuclear membrane always disappear during mitosis & meiosis
- specifically in the beginning of mitosis (prophase), nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleus disappears, & chromosomes condense to allow contents of the cell to release into the cytoplasm
50
ATP synthase + location
**ATP synthase**: key enzyme involved in the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell
- embedded in the inner membrane of the **mitochondria**, where it plays a crucial role in the process of oxidative phosphorylation
51
chromatin
form in which DNA exists when the cell is not dividing
- loosely coiled DNA around histone proteins (loosely coiled to allow for transcription - DNA into RNA)
52
what does the nucleolus make
ribosomes
53
what is the permeability of the **cell wall**?
permeable
- cell wall is rigid and provides support but is generally **permeable** - allows free passage of water, ions, and other small molecules
- however cell wall DOES NOT control what enters and leaves the cell, which is the role of the cell membrane
- semi-permeable & differentially permeable describe the cell membrane or the plasma membrane
54
role of glycoproteins, lipids, carrier proteins, and carbohydrates in plasma membrane
**lipids**: controls fluidity of the membrane
- *phospholipids* that have kinks in them prevent it from solidifying and staying fluid
- *cholesterol* dispersed within phospholipid bilayer that helps stabilize membrane, keeping it fluid
**carrier proteins**: involved in transporting substances across the membrane but do not control fluidity
**glycoprotein & carbohydrates**: involved in cell recognition and signaling
55
what is the electrical potential difference across the membrane of a resting neuron
-70 mv
(millivolts because its relatively small)
56
functions of the large intestine (+ how different from functions of the small intestine)
**large intestine**: absorption of electrolytes and water, and production of vitamins (there are certain bacteria in the large intestine that synthesize vitamins like vitamin K and B that are then absorbed)
**small intestine**: primary site of digestion of food, enzymes from pancreas & bile break down food into simpler components (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids) to be absorbed
*the large intestine does not absorb amino acids bc that is a nutrient and is done by the small intestine*
57
heartbeat is normally regulated by the...
sinoatrial (SA) node
- known as the natural pacemaker of the heart, located in the right atrium & generates **electrical impulses** that initiate the heartbeat and **regulate heart rate** by causing atria to contract and pump blood into the ventricles
58
AV node, AV bundle (bundle of His), Purkinje fibers
**AV node**: secondary pacemaker, relays electrical signals from SA node to the ventricles, but follows lead of the SA node
**Purkinje Fibers**: distribute electrical impulses from the AV node through the ventricles, causing them to contract, but they do not regulate the heartbeat
**AV Bundle (Bundle of His)**: transmits the electrical signals from the AV node to the Purkinje fibers in the ventricles
59
difference b/w covalent solids, ionic solids, molecular solids, & metallic solids
**covalent solids**: strongly bonded together, forming very hard and rigid 3D structure, what makes the solid really strong
- ex. diamond (strong bonded carbon atoms)
**ionic solids**: formed by the attraction between positively and negatively charged ions
- ex. in table salt (NaCl), sodium ions (Na⁺) and chloride ions (Cl⁻) are held together by ionic bonds
**molecular solids**: made up of molecules held together by weaker forces, such as van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds
- ex. solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), where CO₂ molecules are held together by weak forces
**metallic solids**: made of metal atoms where electrons are free to move around, have electrical conductivity and malleability properties
- ex. gold, copper, zinc
60
pH of human blood is _____
7.35 to 7.45
- blood is normally slightly basic, with a normal pH range of about 7.35 to 7.45. usually body maintains the pH of blood close to 7.40
61
Lenz's law
induced current works to oppose changes in the magnetic field
- based on the law of **conservation of energy**
- ex. magnetic braking systems used in amusement park rides - as metal moves through magnetic field, electric current induced that generates own magnetic field and opposes motion of metal
62
law of conservation of momentum
**momentum**: measure of how much motion something has, calculated by multiplying object's mass by velocity
*states that total momentum of a closed system remains constant unless acted upon by external forces*
- so if no outside force is acting on a group of objects, total momentum of group stays the same, even if objects within the group collide or push against each other
63
fleming's right hand rule
used to determine the direction of the **induced current** when a conductor moves in a magnetic field
**thumb**: direction of motion of conductor (or force acting on it)
**index finger**: points in direction of magnetic field
**middle finger**: direction of induced current
*think CFM - cant fleming move?? - starts from middle finger and then to thumb*
C - current (induced)
F - Field (magnetic)
M - motion (or force acting on it)
64
transformer
device used to change the voltage of an electrical signal
- ex. power adaptors that reduce high voltage from wall into smaller voltage for phone
**how it works**: has 2 sets of wire coils called primary and secondary coil. when electricity flows through primary coil, creates magnetic field that passes through secondary coil, inducing voltage in it
- **work on principle of mutual induction**
65
transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction
66
full wave rectification & half wave rectification
**full wave rectification**: converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) using both half cycles of the alternating current
- uses combination of diodes or other components
- produces more stable and smoother current
**half wave rectification**: converts AC into DC using only one half of the AC
- less efficient than full wave
- only uses either positive or negative half of AC signal, blocking other half
**alternating current**: electric current that changes direction, like a wave pattern
- ex. electricity that comes from wall outlets is AC
**direct current**: electric current that flows in only one direction, flow is steady and doesnt reverse direction
- ex. power from batteries (like remote or flashlight) is DC
67
mutual induction & self induction
**Mutual Induction**: involves two wires, one wire's changing current affects the other wire.
- 2 wires close to each other. electricity flows through first wire and changes, creating magnetic field. magnetic field causes (voltage) to appear in the second wire.
**Self-Induction**: involves just one wire, its own changing current affects itself.
- current in a wire changes, creating magnetic field around wire. magnetic field can push back against change, creating voltage in the same area that opposes the change
68
how many diodes are used in full wave rectification?
4
**full wave rectification**: allows for conversion of both positive and negative halves of AC waveform into DC, resulting in smoother DC output
69
diode
small electrical component that allows electric current to flow in only one direction
- blocks current in reverse direction
used to convert AC into DC (in rectifiers)
70
rectifier
device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC)
- typically uses **diodes** to allow current to flow in only one direction, turning the back-and-forth flow of AC into a one-way flow of DC
- *ex.* phone chargers convert the AC from the wall outlet into DC that phone battery needs
71
capacitor
component that **stores and releases electrical energy**
- can quickly charge up with electricity and release when needed
- *ex.* used in camera flashes to store energy and release it quickly when you take a picture
72
inductor
component that **resists change in current**
- works by storing energy in a magnetic field when electricity flows through it and resists any sudden change in the current flow
- *ex.* used in power supplies to smooth out current, preventing spikes and drop s
73
transistor
component that can **amplify signals** or act as a switch
- works by controlling flow of electricity
- can also be used to turn signals on and off or increase their strength
- *ex.* used in amplifiers to make sound louder, or in computers as tiny switches that process information
74
rectification
process of converting AC into DC
75
resolution
clarity of detail of an image or display
76
acceleration, power, energy
**acceleration**: time rate of change of velocity
**power**: rate at which work is done or energy is transferred over time
**energy**: ability to do work or cause change
77
in projectile motion, range of projectile will be maximum at an angle of (under ideal conditions)
45º
range = horizontal distance
- at this angle, equal balance between horizontal and vertical components of velocity, optimizing horizontal distance before hitting the ground
78
Newton's third law of motion
for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
79
law of conservation of energy
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to another
80
collisions and explosions are an application of which law
the law of conservation of momentum
- during explosion, total momentum of system (before and after) remains constant. even though force exerted on fragments, total momentum of all fragments together will be the same as momentum of material before it exploded
- however, kinetic energy is obviously not conserved
81
1 hp (horse power) is equal to ______ watts
746 watts
82
product of force and velocity is
power
83
gravitational potential energy
work done to move an object from a certain point in a gravitational field to a position of zero potential energy without accelerating the object
- basically energy due to an object's height above the ground
84
absolute potential energy
potential energy relative to a reference point, often taken as zero at infinity
85
how many degrees is 1 radian
57.3º
86
terminal velocity, escape velocity, critical velocity
**terminal velocity**: constant speed that a freely falling object eventually reaches when resistance of medium (like air) prevents further acceleration
- *ex. speed skydiver reaches when they stop accelerating and fall at constant rate*
**escape velocity**: minimum velocity needed for an object to break free from gravitational attraction of a planet or celestial body without further propulsion
*ex. speed needed for a spacecraft to leave Earth's gravitational influence*
**critical velocity**: sometimes used to refer to the minimum speed needed to achieve a specific condition, like reaching orbit
- *ex. minimum required speed to put a satellite into orbit*
Average Velocity:
Definition: The total displacement divided by the total time taken. It’s not specifically related to achieving orbit.
87
when an object experiences circular motion, the direction of centripetal acceleration is
towards center
88
how does the solubility of alkaline earth metals change as you go down the group
it increases
**alkaline earth metals**: group 2 elements: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba
because size increases as you go down and the more the size increases, the less tightly packed the electrons are and more easily they break apart
89
geometric isomerism occurs in what types of compounds
alkenes
**geometric isomerism**: cis/trans one exhibited in double bonds (bc cis trans bonds are on opposite or same side of double bonds)
- geometric isomerism occurs where bond rotation is restricted which happens in compounds containing double bonds
90
benzene can be formed from phenol in which reaction?
reduction with zinc
91
pure phenol's physical properties
white, crystalline, deliquescent (tendency to absorb moisture from the air) solid
- smells of disinfectant
92
cannizarro/cinnazzaro's reaction
typically involves **formaldehyde**
- formaldehyde reacts with itself in the presence of a strong base to form **carboxylic acid and an alcohol**
- involves an aldehyde lacking hydrogen atom in the alpha position (alpha hydrogen)
93
sodium nitroprusside test
used to identify **ketones** and some aldehydes
**how it works**: sodium nitroprusside reacts with ketones in the presence of a base, producing a color change. positive result = red/pink/purple color
94
Benedict's solution test
test to detect presence of sugars (like glucose)
- changes color from blue to orange/red
95
fehling's solution test
used to identify sugars and aldehydes
- turns from blue to red precipitate when heated with sugars or aldehydes
96
tollens' test
used to identify aldehydes
- forms a silver mirror on the test tube's surface when reacting with aldehydes
97
why are compounds water soluble?
because they have hydrogen bonding
- hydrogen bonding occurs with oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine
98
which variable mentioned in ideal gas law is assumed to be constant in other gas laws?
number of moles (n)
99
which compounds tend to have higher rates of evaporation? (i.e. evaporate more)
ketones
- because they have weaker intermolecular forces, they don't form hydrogen bonds with themselves
- their boiling points are also low compared to other molecules
*acetone is the simplest ketone*
- carboxylic acids, alcohols, and hydrocarbons have much stronger IMF's and are less likely to evaporate*
100
specific heat of water
4.186 joule/g∘C
101
whats the maximum number of electrons that can be placed in each sub shell?
s, p, d, f
**s**: 1 orbitals, max 2 electrons
**p**: 3 orbitals, max 6 electrons
**d**: 5 orbitals, max 10 electrons
**f**: 7 orbitals, max 14 electrons
102
mass of electron compared to proton
electrons are 1836 times less mass than proton
103
4 things that the rate of a reaction depends on
- temperature
- concentration
- pressure (in case of gaseous reactants)
- rate constant
104
how many joules is 1 Calorie
1 Calorie = 4.184 J
105
muscle contraction (+ which event does not occur during this time)?
doesnt occur: **A band shortens**
during contraction, muscle shortens so I-bands (region of sarcomere that contains thin filaments aka actin) shorten and come together and so do Z-lines (boundaries of each sarcomere)
- A-band contains thick filaments aka myosin which only the thin filaments slide past, it doesnt shorten itself
106
which type of cartilage is most abundant in the body?
hyaline cartilage
- glossy, greyish-white tissue with a uniform appearance
- found at the end of bones in joints, in the nose, trachea, and on the ribs
- provides support and reduces friction in joints
107
fibrocartilage & elastic cartilage (hyaline cartilage is on a different card)
**fibrocartilage**: dense and tough because it contains a lot of collagen fibers
- provides strong support and absorbs shock
- found in *intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis*
**elastic cartilage**: flexible with lots of elastic fibers
- stretch and can return back to original shape
- found in *external era, epiglottis, Eustachian tubes*
108
why is it said that plasma membrane is asymmetrical
the two surfaces and halves are not identical
- different functions: outside does cell recognition, inside does signal pathways
- different lipid and protein distributions
109
polysomes + what are they controlled by
**polysome**: cluster of ribosomes that simultaneously translate a single mRNA strand for protein synthesis
regulated by **Mg2+ ions**
110
pacinian & meissner's corpuscles, olfactory receptors, nociceptors
**paccinian's corpuscles**: detect deep pressure and vibrations, found in deeper layers of skin and tissues like joints and tendons
**meissner's corpuscles**: touch receptors, located in superficial layers or skin, particularly fingertips and lips
**olfactory receptors**: receptors for smell
**nociceptors**: pain receptors
111
function of trachea, larynx, pharynx, esophagus
**larynx**: voice box, produces sound and protects trachea during swallowing to prevent food or liquid from entering
**trachea**: windpipe, carries air from larynx to bronchi and lungs. main airway for breathing
**pharynx**: muscular tube that is passageway for both air and food, *IN BOTH RESPIRATORY AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM*
**esophagus**: transports food and liquids from mouth to stomach
112
list of common covalent compounds
- made of nonmetals = likely covalent
AlCl3
Water (H₂O)
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Methane (CH₄)
Ammonia (NH₃)
Oxygen (O₂)
Nitrogen (N₂)
Chlorine (Cl₂)
Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)
Silicon dioxide (SiO₂)
Dinitrogen pentoxide (N₂O₅)
Phosphorus trichloride (PCl₃)
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆)
Nitric acid (HNO₃)
113
ionization energy trend
increases towards fluorine, just like electronegativity
114
what forces influence the boiling point of a compound?
inter-molecular hydrogen bonding
*not intra because intra is within the same molecule*
they dont wanna let go of each other and break apart, if they let go of themselves it would just become a different compound
115
solubility of a compound in water is almost always explained by
water/molecule being polar
116
graphene, graphite, mercury, and diamond
**graphene**: single layer of carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal lattice. known for being *extremely light but incredibly strong*
**graphite**: layers of graphene stacked together, but not as strong because layers can easily slide over each other. is soft and used in pencils
**mercury**: heavy, liquid metal at room temp
**diamond**: one of the hardest materials and is very strong, but not light. dense and heavy.
117
finding proton number through the funny notation thing
the bottom number is the number of protons, the top number if the total amount of protons and neutrons combined
118
one mole of any two substances always contain the same number of ______________
molecules
because of avogadros number (approximately 6.022×10^23 molecules)
119
steps in order for finding the empirical formula of a chemical compound
**Percentage composition of each element**: first determine the percentage composition (by mass) of each element in the compound
**Finding number of gram atoms of each element**: Convert percentage composition to number of gram atoms (or moles) of each element by dividing the percentage by the atomic mass of the element
**Atomic ratio of each element**: Determine the simplest atomic ratio of the elements by dividing the number of gram atoms of each element by the smallest number obtained in the previous step.
**Multiplication of atomic ratio with whole number**: If the atomic ratios are not whole numbers, multiply them by the smallest whole number that will convert all ratios to whole numbers. This gives you the empirical formula.
120
how to use n+l rule (madelung rule) to calculate which orbital has the maximum energy?
add up the n and l values and whichever number is the highest is the orbital with more energy
**l numbers**:
s → 0
p → 1
d → 2
f → 3
*if 2 n+l values are the same, the one with the higher n value has the higher energy*
121
unsaturated, saturated, supersaturated
**unsaturated**: can still dissolve more solute, has not reached equilibrium yet
**saturated**: contains max amount of dissolved solute, *dissolved solute is in equilibrium with undissolved solute*
**supersaturated**: contains more dissolved solute than it would normally hold at any given temp, state is unstable and excess solute can precipitate out
122
bond energy difference in exothermic and endothermic reactions
**exothermic**: new bonds are formed, energy is released
**endothermic**: energy is absorbed, bonds are broken
BARF
broken = absorbed
formed = released
123
standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)
used as a reference electrode in electrochemistry
**assigned a potential of 0 V (volts)** under standard conditions (1 M concentration, 1 atm pressure, and 25ºC)
- provides standard reference point against which electrode potentials of other half-reactions can be measured
124
noun, adjective, verb, adverb
**Noun**: Person, place, thing, or idea
- *teacher, school, book, happiness*
**Adjective**: Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun
- *red apply, blue key, large house, happy child*
**Verb**: Expresses action, occurrence, or state of being
- *run, write, am, is, are, happen, occur*
**Adverb**: Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, indicating manner, time, place, or degree.
- he runs *quickly*, draw *back*
125
prudent meaning
acting with or showing care and thought for the future
126
quaint meaning
attractively unusual or old-fashioned
127
lucrative meaning
producing a great deal of profit
128
judicious meaning
having or showing good judgement or sense
129
ominous meaning
giving the impression that something bad or unpleasant is going to happen
130
analogue meaning
something that is similar or comparable to something else either in general or in some specific detail
131
a full description of car accidents _______ reported.
**was**
"full description" is singular so cant use were or have been
and since this is past tense, are would not work either
132
inter vs intra molecular forces
inter is within other molecules and intra is within the same molecule
133
how does phenol form benzene?
through reduction with zinc
134
