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premed.pk cards Flashcards

1
Q

neurotransmitters vs. hormones

A

both are chemical messengers

neurotransmitters: transmit a message from a nerve cell across the synapse to a target cell

hormones: secreted directly into blood which carries them to organs and tissues of the body

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2
Q

epinephrine

A
  • commonly called adrenaline

constricts blood vessels, increases heart rate, but also relaxes airway muscles (making it easier to breathe)

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3
Q

serotonin

A

used by body to send messages between nerve cells

  • plays role in mood and emotion, regulates sleep-wake cycle and body clock

(known for happiness, focus, and calmness)

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4
Q

dopamine

A

pleasure hormone

also involved in ability to think and plan

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5
Q

endorphins

A
  • used to cope with pain and stress
  • pain reliever and happiness booster

“feel good” chemical

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6
Q

ways of transmission:

  • AIDS
  • Tuberculosis
  • Dengue Virus
  • Cholera
A

AIDS: sexual transmission, spread of bodily fluids

Tuberculosis: spreads from person to person through microscopic air droplets (coughing and whatnot)

Dengue Virus: spreads through mosquito bites

Cholera: spreads by drinking contaminated water or food

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7
Q

Hemophilia (+ inheritance pattern)

A

bleeding disorder that slows blood clotting process

  • inherited in an X-linked recessive disorder
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8
Q

Co-dominant alleles

A

2 different alleles contribute to a particular characteristic would express themselves in a collaborative manner, phenotype is a combination the 2 different phenotypes

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9
Q

which type of cells have no cell walls?

A

liver cells

(fungal and bacterial cells have cell walls)

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10
Q

70S Ribosomes vs. 80S Ribosomes

A

70S Ribosomes: found in prokaryotic cells (including bacteria)

80S Ribosomes: found in eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi, and protists)

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11
Q

According to the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane, which zone is embedded inside?

A

hydrophobic

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12
Q

tissue

A

group of cells that have similar structure and function together as a unit

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13
Q

4 functions of the endoplasmic reticulum

A
  1. produces proteins
  2. involved in making lipids (fats)
  3. Detoxifies the cell by breaking down harmful chemical and drugs
  4. Stores and transports proteins and lipids within the cell
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14
Q

which cell organelle is involved in the synthesis of cell wall and middle lamella?

A

Golgi apparatus

(plays crucial role in processing, modifying, and packaging various cell materials including the ones for the cell wall)

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15
Q

hydrophobic exclusion

A

water likes to stay from hydrophobic things

  • helps maintain the structure of things like cell membrane and keep them stable
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16
Q

water acts as a universal solvent because of

A

high polarity

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17
Q

lipids store double the amount of energy as compared to carbohydrates because

A

high proportion of C-H

(explanation: C-H bonds release more energy than breaking C-O bonds. lipids store more energy because they have a higher proportion of C-H bonds and less of C-O bonds)

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18
Q

unsaturated vs saturated fatty acid

A

unsaturated: contains one or more carbon double bonds

saturated: every carbon atom is attached to as many hydrogen atoms as it can be

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19
Q

monosaccharides have a general formula represented by

A

(CH2O) n

n carbon atoms and b H2O molecules

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20
Q

NAD

A

stands for “Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide”

  • dinucleotide
  • helper that makes sure cells get their energy by moving around electrons
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21
Q

most enzymes have an optimum temperature of around

A

40 C

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22
Q

Calvin cycle

A

used by plants to help convert carbon dioxide into energy using sunlight and water

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23
Q

first stable compound during Calvin cycle is

A

3-phosphoglycerate

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24
Q

which is a copper containing protein in electron transport chain?

A

plastocyanin

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25
Q

allele (genetics)

A

partner of gene pair

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26
Q

loci (genetics)

A

the position of a gene on the chromosome

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27
Q

loci

A

the position

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28
Q

phenotype and genotype

A

phenotype: the form of appearance of a trait

genotype: the genetic component i.e. the genes in an individual for a particular trait

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29
Q

which is found in both messenger RNA and DNA of a mammalian cell?

A

sugar - phosphate backbone

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30
Q

DNA & RNA polymerase

A

DNA polymerase: copies DNA exactly

RNA polymerase: transcribes an RNA copy of the DNA

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31
Q

the particular array of chromosomes that an individual possesses is called its

A

karyotype

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32
Q

during meiosis, the homologous chromosomes come together and form pairs, this process is called

A

synapsis

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33
Q

at what cell division phase is the DNA content doubled?

A

interphase (S-phase which occurs during interphase)

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34
Q

transcription and translation

A

transcription: the formation of mRNA out of DNA

translation: synthesis of proteins using those mRNAs

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35
Q

endosymbiotic theory

A

some of the organelles in today’s eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic microbes

  • mitochondria and chloroplasts
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36
Q

analogous vs homologous organs

A

analogous organs: similar function but different structures (ex. flippers and webbed feet)

homologous organs: different function but similar structures (ex. arms of humans and flippers of whales)

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37
Q

recombinant DNA

A

DNA that has been altered and which now contains length of nucleotides from 2 different organisms

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38
Q

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

technique used to rapidly increase the number of copies of specific regions of DNA for further analysis

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39
Q

DNA ligase

A

connects individual DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds between them

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40
Q

name the 3 components/tools of recombinant DNA technology

A

gene of interest (part of the DNA that’s being modified), molecular scissors, molecular glue and expression system

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41
Q

gel electrophoreses

A

laboratory method used to separate mixtures of RNA, DNA, or proteins according to molecular size

(molecules separated are pushed by an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores)

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42
Q

transgenic organisms

A
  • created through genetic engineering
  • gene from one species inserted into DNA of another
  • used to artificially engineer things like insulin
  • beneficial to humans
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43
Q

the end product in anaerobic respiration is

A

2 types of anaerobic respiration:

lactic acid fermentation: end product is lactic acid

alcohol fermentation: end product is carbon dioxide and ethanol

final answer: lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and ethanol

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44
Q

enveloped virus

A

virus that an outer wrapping or “envelope”

  • envelope is derived from the host which helps it hide from antibodies as it travels (antibody resistant)
  • survive for a short time
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45
Q

opportunist disease

A

disease that takes advantage of a weakened immune system

(would not otherwise be successful if the immune system was up to par)

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46
Q

a complete, mature infection virus particle is called

A

Virion

(main function is to deliver its DNA or RNA genome into the host cell so that the genome can be expressed in the host cell)

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47
Q

capsid

A

protective protein shell for a virus, enclosing its genetic material

48
Q

retrovirus + example

A

retrovirus: virus that uses its own genetic material to change the genetic material of the cell it infects, turning it into a virus making factory

notable example: HIV

49
Q

taxis & kinesis (in terms of cell movement)

A

taxis: a directional movement which occurs toward (positive) or away (negative) from the stimulus

kinesis: random movement

50
Q

photophosphorylation

A

light-dependent reaction that occurs in the geranium of plant cells, specifically in the thylakoid membranes

  • sunlight converted into ATP and NADPH
51
Q

anamniote

A

anamniotes are tetrapods (descendants of four limbed and backboned animals) that are characterized by having an egg equipped by an amnion, an adaptation to lay eggs on land rather than in water (?)

52
Q

chordae tendinae

A

known as the heartstrings

present in the ventricles

53
Q

the only human vein that carries oxygenated blood is called the

A

pulmonary vein

54
Q

Aldosterone

A

maintains the body’s sodium-ion concentration

55
Q

thyroxine

A

main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland

  • plays vital role in digestion, heart and muscle function, brain development, and the maintenance of bones
  • thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback
56
Q

ADH

A

anti-diuretic hormone that helps to control blood pressure by acting on the kidneys and the blood vessels

  • conserves body fluid by by reducing amount of water passed out in urine
57
Q

cortisone

A

steroid drug that helps decrease swelling and inflammation in the body

58
Q

myogenic vs. neurogenic + examples

A

myogenic: orientating or produced by the muscle cells themselves (ex. heartbeat is myogenic because heart muscle cells generate their own signals to make heart beat)

neurogenic: nerve generated, controlled by your nerves (ex. ability to move arms because brain sends signals through nerve cells to move)

59
Q

which blood vessel has the highest blood pressure and which has the lowest?

A

highest - aorta

lowest - vena cava

60
Q

sarcolemma (+prefix sarco)

A

the cell surface membrane of a muscle fiber

(prefix sarco means “muscle”)

61
Q

what is common to all neurons?

A

a cell body that contains a nucleus

62
Q

the long thing processes in a neuron that transmit neural impulses from one part to the other are called

A

Axons

63
Q

the name of the 2 hormones of the pituitary gland that regulate the menstrual cycle and what they do individually

A

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)

FSH: helps control menstrual cycle and stimulates growth of eggs in the ovaries

LH: triggers the release of an egg from the ovary in ovulation

64
Q

the name of the 2 hormones of the pituitary gland that regulate

A
64
Q

the name of the 2 hormones of the pituitary gland that regulate

A
65
Q

which traits are more likely to affect men than women

A

X-linked recessive

66
Q

which of the following does not need pyruvic acid as a substrate but all other ones do?

  1. Alcoholic fermentation
  2. Calvin cycle
  3. Aerobic respiration
  4. Lactic Acid fermentation
A
  1. Calvin cycle
67
Q

synapsis

A

during meiosis, homologous chromosomes come together and form pairs through process called synapsis

(alignment of chromosomes side by side)

68
Q

amoebae move by

A

forming specialized cytoplasmic projections called pseudopodia

69
Q

name the vessels that the right and left atrium receive blood from

A

right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava

left atrium: receives blood from four pulmonary veins

70
Q

B Lymphocytes

A

antibodies are manufactured here

71
Q

T Lymphocytes

A

part of immune system and develop from stem cells in the bone marrow

  • help protect body from infection and may help fight cancer by attacking foreign particles
72
Q

platelets

A

also called thrombocytes

small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or prevent bleeding

73
Q

prefix vaso, vasodilation, vasoconstriction

A

vaso = vessel

vasodilation: widening or relaxation of blood vessels, resulting in increased blood flow

vasoconstriction: narrowing of the blood vessels, reducing blood flow

74
Q

alkyl halide + primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halide

A

alkyl halide: chain of carbon atoms with a halogen atom (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine)

alkyl halides are known for their reactivity

secondary alkyl halide: carbon atom carrying the halogen is attached to 2 other carbon atoms

primary are attached to 1

tertiary are attached to 3

75
Q

alkyl halide + primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halide

A

alkyl halide: compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine)

76
Q

R-X on reaction with alcohols form

A

ROR (ethers)

R-X (alkyl halide with X being halogen)

77
Q

the other name for phenol is

A

carbolic acid

78
Q

why is phenol more acidic than normal alcohols

A

because of the delocalization of negative charge in the benzene ring

79
Q

benzene ring

A

functional group characterized by ring of 6 carbons, bonded by alternating double and single bonds

(creates a ring of delocalized electrons, stabilizing the compound)

80
Q

carbonyl compound

A

contains carbonyl group C=O

  • known for their reactivity because of the polarity of the C=O bond
  • examples: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides
81
Q

name some examples of aldehydes

A
  • formaldehyde (CH2O): used in industrial applications and as a disinfectant
  • acetaldehyde (CH3CHO): product of alcohol metabolism and found in ripe fruits
82
Q

name some examples of ketones

A
  • acetone (CH3COCH3): used in nail polish remover and industrial processes
  • butanone (CH3COC2H5): used as a solvent and in paints and coatings
83
Q

name some examples of carboxylic acids

A
  • acetic acid (CH3COOH): found in vinegar and used as a food preservative
  • formic acid (HCOOH): present in ant venom and used in textile processing
  • benzoic acid (C6H5COOH): used as a food preservative and in pharmaceuticals
84
Q

name some examples of esters

A
  • ethyl acetate (CH3COOC2H5): used as a solvent and flavor enhancer in food
  • ethyl butyrate: used in fruity flavors and fragrances
85
Q

name some examples of amides

A
  • Acetamide (CH3CONH2): used in pharmaceuticals and as a solvent
  • Formamide (HCONH2): Used in the production of plastics and textiles.
86
Q

which reagent is used to separate and purify carbonyl compounds from non carbonyl compounds?

A

sodium hydrogen sulfite also called sodium bisulfife (NaHSO3)

when mixed with an impure carbonyl compound, it becomes another compound with white crystals

87
Q

based on the physio-chemical properties, proteins can be classified into 3 types:

A
  1. simple proteins: on hydrolysis, they yield only the amino acids and occasional small carbohydrate compounds
    - ex: albumins, globulins, histones, and protamines
  2. conjugated proteins: simple proteins combined with some non-simple protein material in the body
    - ex: nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, hemoglobins
  3. derived proteins: proteins derived from simple or conjugated proteins by physical or chemical means
    - ex: denatured proteins and peptides
88
Q

thyroxine

A
  • hormonal protein
  • main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland
  • one of the amino acid derived hormones
89
Q

L - Asparaginase enzyme has been used for the treatment of

A

blood cancer

  • works by breaking down amino acid called asparagine, which promotes growth of cancer cells. L - Asparaginase inhibits the function of that amino acid
90
Q

Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Li, and Na react with oxygen to form which type of oxide?

A

Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium: superoxide

Li: normal oxide

Na: peroxide

91
Q

normal oxide, superoxide, peroxide

A

normal oxide: basic combination of an element with oxygen (ex. carbon dioxide)

superoxide: oxygen molecule with an extra electron, forming a negatively charged ion,

92
Q

densities of alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are low due to

A

large atomic size

outermost electrons are farthest away from the nucleus = lower attractions = the atoms are less tightly packed = lower density

93
Q

aromatic compounds

A

also called arenes

organic molecules that contain one or more benzene rings

  • known for their stability and unique reactivity patterns
94
Q

what is an isothermal process

A

temperature stays constant throughout the process even if other things are changing

95
Q

isobaric process

A

pressure remains constant

96
Q

adiabatic process

A

heat transfer is zero

97
Q

isoenthalphic process

A

enthalpy remains constant

98
Q

1 radian is equal to

A

57.3 degrees

99
Q

the domestic electricity supply has a frequency of _________ in Pakistan

A

50 Hz

100
Q

isomerism

A

same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms or different bonding patterns

101
Q

types of isomerism:

  • functional group
  • position
  • chain
    -metamerism
A
  • functional group: same molecular formula but different functional groups
  • position: same molecular formula but differ in the position of the functional group or substituent on the carbon chain
  • chain: same molecular formula but different arrangement of the carbon chains
  • metamerism: same molecular formula but differ in arrangement of alkyl groups on either side of a functional group
102
Q

type of isomerism in compound C2H6O is

A

functional group

103
Q

geometric isomerism

A

2 adjacent carbon atoms must have 2 different groups attached to them

(difference in arrangement happens around a double bond in molecules, creating two versions that can’t be turned into each other without breaking the bond)

104
Q

cis and trans structure

A

cis: functional groups are on the same side of the plane

trans: functional groups are on opposite sides of the plane

105
Q

generic formula of cycloalkane is + what is cycloalkane

A

CnH2n

cycloalkane: monocylic saturated hydrocarbons, only hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a structure containing a single ring, and all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds

106
Q

general formula of alkanes

A

CnH2n+2

107
Q

general formula of alkyls (radicals)

A

CnH2n-1

108
Q

general formula of alkynes

A

CnH2n-2

109
Q

difference between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

A

alkanes: single bonds between carbons in a straight branch

alkenes: double bonds present, creating bend or twist in the molecule

alkynes: at least one triple bond present, making molecule even more bent or twisted

110
Q

nucleophile vs electrophile

A

nucleophile: attracted to nucleolus (positively charged centers) and like to donate a pair of electrons atom that likes to donate a pair of electrons to form a new bond, typically have negative charge

electrophile: electron loving, typically have positive charge

111
Q

in alkanes, each carbon has hybridization

A

sp3

tetrahedral shapes

bonded atoms at angles of 109.5 to each other

112
Q

Kp and Kc relationship

A

Kp > Kc: number of gaseous products greater than number of reactants

Kp < Kc: number of products less than number of reactants

113
Q

chemical kinetics

A

the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding how fast or slow a chemical reaction occurs i.e. their rates

114
Q
A

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