Pape 1 Topic 3: Attachment

Question 1

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Define attachment

Answer 1

an emotional bond between two people. A two-way process developed over time. It leads to certain behaviours e.g clinging and proximity seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant
Especially between infant and caregiver

Question 2

1. infant-caregiver interactions

define caregiver

Answer 2

Any person who is providing care for a child such as a parent.

Question 3

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Define imitation

Answer 3

the infant directly copies the caregivers expressions

Question 4

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Define sensitive responsiveness

Answer 4

the adult caregiver interprets the meaning of the infants communication and is motivated to respond appropriately

Question 5

1. infant-caregiver interactions

define interactional synchrony

Answer 5

“The temporal coordination of micro-level social behaviour.”

When a caregiver and infant mirror each other’s actions and emotions in a coordinated and synchronised way, eg: smiling at the same time or moving in rhythm during interactions.

Question 6

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Define reciprocity

Answer 6

When a person (baby) responds to the action of another (care giver) with a similar action in the form of taking turns.

Question 7

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Who researched reciprocity in relate to caregivers and infants and how

Answer 7

Brazelton(1979) deserves this interaction as a ‘dance’ as couples response to eachother movements and rhythm. Interaction flows back and forth.

Feldman suggested from 3 months old, reciprocity increases in frequency as the infant and caregiver pays an increasing amount of attention to each others verbal and facial communications. This sensitive responsiveness lays the strong foundations for attachment to develop

Question 8

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Why is attachment important for the caregiver - infant interaction

Answer 8

Human babies are altricial
Meaning they’re born at a relatively early stage of development compared to other animals
Infants must form bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them

Question 9

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Describe key study: Meltzoff and Moore

Answer 9

Aim: examine interactional synchrony in infants

Method:
Lab experiment with controlled observation.
Infants (as young as 2–3 weeks old) were shown an adult model displaying one of three facial expressions (e.g. tongue protrusion) or a hand gesture.
A dummy was used to prevent imitation before the demonstration, and responses were recorded and later rated by independent observers.

Findings:
Infants consistently imitated the facial expressions and gestures.
There was a clear association between the model’s behaviour and the infant’s response.

Conclusion:
Imitation is an innate ability, not learned, suggesting that interactional synchrony is present from a very early age and may play a role in forming attachments.

Question 10

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Strength of Carer-infant interactions - Meltzoff and Moores research

Answer 10

A strength of the research in this area is that it is usually highly controlled and therefore has good validity.
Observations of mother-infant interactions are generally well-controlled procedures, with both mother and infant being filmed, often from multiple angles. This ensures that very fine details of behavior can be recorded and later analysed.
Furthermore, babies don’t know or care that they are being observed so their behavior does not change in response to controlled observation which is generally a problem for observational research.
Therefore, it could be argued that the research in this field has good internal validity.

Question 11

1. infant-caregiver interactions

Limitation of caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 11

A limitation of Meltzoff and Moore’s research is that recent research has suggested there are individual differences involved in interactional synchrony.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the level of interactional synchrony.
This suggests that not all children engage in interactional synchrony the same way and that Meltzoff and Moore’s original findings may have overlooked this mediating factor.
Therefore, maybe researchers cannot take a nomothetic approach to studying caregiver-infant interactions.

A limitation of Meltzoff and Moore is that the results may lack reliability due to the methodological problems with studying interactional synchrony using observational methods.
Recent research by Koepke et al. (1983) failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and Moore. There is the possibility of observer bias where the researchers consciously or unconsciously interpret behaviour to support their findings.
To address this problem more than one observer should be used to examine the inter-observer reliability of the observations.
This lack of research support suggests that the results of Meltzoff and Moore are unreliable and more research is required to validate their findings

Question 12

2. stages of attachment

State the Stages of attachment

Answer 12

Asocial
Indiscriminate attachments
Discriminate (specific) attachments
Multiple attachments

Question 13

2. stages of attachment

Explain the first stage of the stages of attachment

Answer 13

Asocial:
-reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in establishing the infants relationship with others
-from 0-2 months
-shows similar responses to objects and people
-towards end of the this stage they do display a preference for faces/eyes

Beginning to show preference for social stimuli vs inanimale objects.

Question 14

2. stages of attachment

describe the second stage of attazhcme

Answer 14

Indiscriminate attachments:
-from 2 to 6 months
-prefers company of human other objects.
-but are comforted indiscriminately by anyone and shows little to no stranger anxiety yet

Question 15

2. stages of attachment

Explain the third stage of attachment

Answer 15

Discriminate (specific) attachments
From 7-12 months
Infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying seperation and stranger anxiety.
Infant looks to primary caregiver giver for protection and security
In 65% this was the mother, a further 27% had joint attachment to mother and father.

Question 16

2. stages of attachment

Explain the fourth stage of attachment

Answer 16

One year onwards.
Attachment behaviours shown to multiple people in secondary attachments like siblings and grandparents.
Typically form in the first month after primary attachment is formed and number of multiple attachment which develops on the social circle to whom the infant is exposed.

Within 1 month 29% of infants had at least one other attachment, within 6 months this rose to 78%. Depends on how many consistent relationships there are.

Question 17

2. stages of attachment

Describe the key study: Schaffer and Emerson

Answer 17

Aim: examine formation of early attachments

Method:
Sample: 60 babies from working class families in Glasgow. Aged between 5-23 weeks.

Observed every 4 weeks until 1 year old
* Observed again at 18 months
* At each visit mother reported infant’s separation protest in seven everyday situations (e.g. being left alone in a room, being left with other people).
* Mother rated intensity of protest on a 4-point scale and identified to whom the protest was directed.
* Stranger anxiety measured by assessing infant’s response to the interviewer at each visit

Findings:
- Within one month of first becoming attached 29% of infants had multiple attachments and within 6 months, this had risen to 78% of infants having multiple attachments
* The primary object of attachment was not always the one who fed and bathed the infant as 39% of infants attached to someone else
-Schaffer and Emerson reported that there was little relationship between the time spent together and attachment

Conclusion:
Responsiveness appeared to be the key to attachment
* Intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their demands and infants who were weakly attached had mothers who failed to interact
Infants can create multiple attachments once a primary attachment has been established

Question 18

2. stages of attachment

8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:

Evaluation of Schaffer and Emerson research of stages of attachment

Answer 18

Strength:

A strength of the study is that is has useful practical applications.
For example, if a baby is in a child care setting in the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate attachments) babies can be comforted by any skilled adult.
However, if a child starts day care later such as in the specific stages of attachment they would benefit from a key worker as they may get distresses with an unfamiliar adult.
Therefore the findings have practical value in the real world and can help with childcare decisions for parents and day care settings so increases validity

A criticism of Schaffer’s research is that it lacks population validity due to the limited sample in the research.
The sample consisted of only 60 working class mothers and babies from Glasgow, who may form very different attachments with their infants when compared with wealthier families from other countries.
For example, there may be specific issues associated with social deprivation e.g. poverty and mental health that may mean the results are not generalisable to other populations.
Therefore, we are unable to generalise the results of this study to mothers and babies from other social backgrounds or other regions as their behaviour might not be comparable. So low populational validity

A limitation of Schaffer & Emerson is that the results may have been affected by social desirability bias.
For example, Shaffer and Emerson interviewed the mothers about their children and some of them may not have reported accurate details about their children in order to appear like ‘better’ mothers with secure attachments.
This could cause a bias in the data that would reduce the validity of the findings since natural behaviour will not have been recorded about the stages of attachment.
However, there are always methodological issues with collecting data on infants as researchers are limited to observations and self-reports

Question 19

2. stages of attachment

Define multiple attachments

Answer 19

attachments to two or more people. Research has shown that most babies are able to form multiple attachments once they have formed a specific attachment to their main caregiver.

Question 20

3. role of father

what’s the traditional role of the father

Answer 20

Traditionally, the role of the father in attachment would have been limited, as they would go to work to provide resources for the family whilst the mothers took care of the children. Although recently the role of the father has changed significantly.

Question 21

3. role of father

How can we use Schaffer and Emerson to talk about the role of the father in multiple attachments?

Answer 21

Schaffer and Emerson has taught us that a baby can have multiple attachments which could include the father.
-they found that the father is rarely the primary attachment figure (only in 3% of cases)
- 75% of babies in S&E had formed an attachment with their father by 18 months (noted by separation anxiety when he left)
Babies are attached to the adult that is most responsive to their needs (this does not need to be the mother).

Question 22

3. role of father

What are the biological and social differences

Answer 22

-hormonal differences: men lack emotional sensitivity as testosterone promotes aggression. Female hormones estrogem and oxytocin promote caring and empathy behaviour so may mean men are not psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment
Mammals have evolved for women to take this role.

social:
- it’s thought of as “feminine” to be sensitive towards the needs of others, affecting males behaviour as so most men may be constrained to labelism
- Early and Wood (2001) suggested that social factors, such as cultural expectations and gender roles, influence the role of the father in attachment rather than biological or evolutionary differences.

Question 23

3. role of father

What’s the distinct role of the father

Answer 23

Research suggests father take on different role to mothers and act
more a s a play mate
* Fathers are more physically active, playful and provide more challenging situations which help develop problem solving skills
* The mother is more likely to be more conventional in their activities e.g. read a book together

Question 24

3. role of father

8/16 marker hasn’t come up before:
Strengths of the role of the father

Answer 24

-able to form secure attachments with their children if they’re in an intimate marriage
-research evidence that provides support of the role of the father as a ‘playmate’

P: Research suggests that fathers are able to form secure attachments with their
children if they are in an intimate or close marriage.
E - Belsky et al. (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father–infant attachment, whereas males with lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father–infant attachments.
E - males can form secure attachments with their children; but strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship.
L - Therefore, while fathers may be biologically determined to form a different relationship with their children, this relationship is mediated by their environment (the intimacy of their marriage) suggesting that while a father’s role may be determined, it is only determined to an extent and therefore a softer view of determinism is more appropriate.

P - There is research evidence that provides support for the role of the father as a ‘playmate’.
E - Research by Geiger (1996) found that fathers’ play interactions were more exciting in comparison to mothers’. However, the mothers’ play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
E - This suggests that the role of the father is as a playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children.
L - These results also confirm that the mother takes on more of a nurturing role and shows there may be biological explanations between the genders of the role they take with their children.

Question 25

3. role of father 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Limitation of the role of the father

Answer 25

P - Evidence suggests that fathers don’t provide a sensitive and nurturing attachment. E - Hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress, in comparison to mothers. These results appear to support the biological explanations; the lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not biologically equipped to form close attachments with their children. E - This suggests that the role of the father is, to some extent, biologically determined and that a father’s role is restricted because of their biological makeup. L - This provides further evidence that fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment, as they are unable to detect stress in their children and are therefore less likely to the primary caregiver.

Question 26

1. caregiver-infant interactions Some researchers believe that caregiver-infant interactions influence the development of attachemnt Explain one reason why it is difficult to draw conclusions about the role of caregiver-infant interactions in the development of attachment.

Answer 26

cannot ever show cause and effect because it is ethically impossible to manipulate the amount / quality of caregiver-infant interaction;

Question 27

4. animal studies Define ethology

Answer 27

Studying animals in their natural environment

Question 28

4. animal studies Define animal experiment

Answer 28

Studying animals in a controlled setting with an IV

Question 29

4. animal studies What’s the link between rhesus and humans genes

Answer 29

Rhesus monkeys share 93% of their genes with humans and are seen to experience the most ‘human like’ emotion amongst animals

Question 30

4. animal studies Which zoologist studied imprinting

Answer 30

Lorenz one of the founders of modern ethology

Question 31

4. animal studies Describe Lorenz 1935 study on imprinting

Answer 31

Aim: To investigate the mechanisms of imprinting in animals and how it affects attachment behaviours. Procedure: Lorenz split a large clutch of goose eggs into two groups. One group was left with their biological mother, while the other group was placed in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched, Lorenz was the first moving object they saw. He then observed the goslings to see who they followed. Lorenz also marked the two groups and placed them together to test whom they would follow. Findings: The incubator group followed Lorenz, while the control group followed the mother goose. This behaviour was irreversible and occurred only within a critical period shortly after hatching. Lorenz also noted that birds imprinted on a moving object, not necessarily a biological parent. Conclusion: Imprinting is a form of attachment where young animals form an early bond with the first moving object they see. It occurs during a critical period (around 4 to 25 hours) and is innate (biologically programmed). Imprinting affects later mating behaviour (sexual imprinting), supporting the idea that early attachment has long-term effects.

Question 32

4. animal studies Who inspired Bowley and what did Bowley argue

Answer 32

Lorenz Bowlby argued there is an ‘innate pre-programming’ to stay close to primary care givers. Lorenz’s work can also be used as evidence to support the concept of a critical period and monotropy.

Question 33

Who’s the father of attachment theory

Answer 33

Bowlby

Question 34

4. animal studies Strength and Limitation of Lorenz theory of imprinting

Answer 34

Strength: -reliable finding as many animal studies have found that animals attach to the first object they see after birth. E – Guiton (1966) demonstrated that leghorn chicks, exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding them during their first few weeks, became imprinted on the gloves. He also found that the male chickens later tried to mate with the gloves, showing that early imprinting is linked to later reproductive behaviour.​ ​E – This is a strength because it increases the reliability of Lorenz’s findings as they both found that animals attach to the first moving object and mate with the same species. L: supports view that young animals are not born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific object but on any moving thing that's presented during the critical period of development but the mating behaviour may not be as permanent as Lorenz believed Limitation P: the findings of Lorenz imprinting study is the issue of animal extrapolation E: findings were based on studies of birds. Although his findings have been very influential to our understanding of human development, there is a problem in generalising from birds to humans as non-human animal brains are qualitatively different to humans. Ex: Research suggests that the mammalian attachment system is quite different to birds, for example, mammals tend to show more emotional attachment to young than birds do. Also, mammals can form attachments at any time, albeit less easily than in infancy. human offspring are much more dependant on thier caregivers than other species as humans are more altircal than birds L: reduces generalisability of natural behaviour.

Question 35

4. animal studies Describe Harlows study on Rhesus monkeys

Answer 35

Aim: To investigate whether attachment in baby monkeys is formed through food or comfort (contact comfort). Procedure: Harlow separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers and placed them in cages with two surrogate "mothers": A wire mother that dispensed milk A cloth mother that provided no food but was soft and comforting He observed how much time the monkeys spent with each "mother." In some variations, he introduced frightening stimuli to observe where the monkeys would seek comfort. Findings: The monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth mother, even if she had no food. When frightened, they ran to the cloth mother for comfort. They only went to the wire mother briefly for feeding, if at all. Monkeys raised in isolation showed long-term social and emotional damage (e.g. aggressive behaviour, poor mating skills, neglect or abuse of their own offspring). Conclusion: Contact comfort is more important than food in the formation of attachment. Early maternal deprivation can lead to emotional and social problems. There is a critical period for normal development — monkeys raised without a real mother within 90 days could not form attachments later.

Question 36

4. animal studies Evaluate Harlows key study into contact comfort

Answer 36

Strength: P: conducted In a controlled lab setting whereby many extraneous variables can be controlled for Ex: Harlow was able to control extraneous variables like monkeys being taken away from their mothers straight after birth, the baby monkeys not being exposed to any love or attention from their biological mothers. Furthermore, rhesus monkeys share 93% of their dna with humans so monkeys are more genetically and behaviourally more similar to humans than Lorenz study so the effect of genetic differences being a confounding variable is minimised as much as possible. L: Harlow was measuring what he intended to measure (ie. Factors that affect the formation of attachemnt) and therefore the study can be seen to have high internal validity allowing a cause and effect relationship to be established Limit: P: ethical issues Eg: the monkeys in Harlows stud showed great distress when they were removed from their biological mothers. Ex: In addition, After the study, when the monkeys were placed in situation with other Rhesus monkeys not involved in the research, they showed great signs of distress eg: diarrhoea especially in social situations and were unable to communicate. When the monkeys for, the study had their own children, many were said to have neglected their offspring and in extreme circumstances killed their offspring. L: this breaches the BPS guidelines as it fails to protect monkeys from harm. Furthermore, the study doesn’t tell about human attachments as monkeys are physiologically different to humans so psychologists can argue that the lack of generalisability from this research makes Harlows study even more unethical.

Question 37

4. animal studies Define contact comfort

Answer 37

The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being close to its mother.

Question 38

What are the explainatioms of attachment

Answer 38

Learning theory Bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment

Question 39

5. learning theory as an explanation of attachment Define the learning theory of attachemnt as an explaination of attachment

Answer 39

Explains how infants learn to become attachment to their primary caregiver through the process of either classical conditioning or operant conditioning. referred to as the ‘cupboard love’ theory because the main principles of this explanation for attachment focuses on food. Overall, it is thought that infants will form an attachment to whoever feeds them.

Question 40

5. learning theory as an explanation of attachment Link classical conditioning to learning theory

Answer 40

associating two stimuli together to condition (learn) a response. 1. food (UCS) which produces an UCR (reflex) in the child – relief from hunger/pleasure. 2. the caregiver (NS) produces no conditioned response at all from the child. 3. During conditioning, the child associates the caregiver (NS) who feeds them with the food (UCS) 4. Through many repeated pairing, the caregiver (CS) who is associated with the pleasure from feeding. conditioned response (relief from hunger) from the child and the formation of an attachment.

Question 41

5. learning theory as an explanation of attachment Link operant conditioning to learning theory

Answer 41

**Dollard and Miller** applied the principles of reward and reinforcement to explain human attachment between a caregiver and an infant. Positive Reinforcement (for the baby): When the baby cries, the caregiver feeds or comforts them. This is a reward (the food or comfort), which reinforces the crying behaviour. Over time, the baby learns that staying close to the caregiver brings rewards — so attachment strengthens. The baby is positively reinforced for staying near or seeking attention from the caregiver. Negative Reinforcement (for the caregiver): When the baby cries, it’s unpleasant or distressing for the caregiver. Feeding or comforting the baby makes the crying stop, which removes the unpleasant stimulus. So, the caregiver is negatively reinforced to respond and care for the baby. Key idea: The caregiver's behaviour (comforting the baby) is strengthened because it removes the unpleasant experience of crying. food - primary reinforcer. The caregiver who provided it the food - secondary reinforcer. Attachment - the secondary drive leading to satisfying a primary drive (hunger)

Question 42

5. learning theory as an explanation of attachment Evaluate the learning theory explanation of attachment

Answer 42

P - A limitation of the learning theory is that there is research which offers an alternative explanation of how babies form attachments, through caregiver responsiveness. E - Schaffer and Emerson (1964) observed 60 babies in Glasgow for a year. They found that attachments seem to be formed to responsive individuals rather than the individuals who provide the care. More than half of infants were not attached to the person primarily involved in their physical care and thus challenging learning theory, as it shows infants form attachment to people who do not feed them. E - This suggests that it is not just food (UCS) associated with the mother (NS) that causes attachment and learning theory takes no account of responsiveness which appears to be an important factor. L- This suggests that learning theory is too reductionist as there are other factors such as responsiveness that contribute towards the development of attachment. It is worth noting however that this research has low population validity due to the sample of babies being from working class families in Glasgow only, lowering the generalisability of the results. P- A limitation of the learning theory explanation of attachment is that there is empirical evidence which directly challenges the learning theory. E - Harlow (1962) placed rhesus monkeys in a cage with two surrogate mothers; a wire mother providing milk and the a cloth mother providing comfort but no milk. E - Learning theory of attachment would predict that the monkeys should have attached the wire mother because it provided food. However, they preferred the cloth mother which challenges this theory. This evidence has high internal validity as the variables were controlled in a lab setting which allowed a cause and effect relationship between the IV (type of surrogate mother) and DV (time spent with the mother). L- Therefore, the explanation that food (UCS) paired with the mother (NS) or the mother as a secondary reinforcer is too simplistic. The role of contact comfort to attachment found in Harlow's highly controlled challenges the validity of the learning theory of attachment.

Question 43

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Define the Bowlbys theory of attachemnt as an explaination of attachment

Answer 43

-a monotropic theory -takes an evolutionary perspective -argues children are born with an innate tendency to form attachments with their parents in order to increases chances of survival

Question 44

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment What’s the 5 stages of bowblys theory of attachment

Answer 44

1) adaptive 2) social releases 3) critical period 4) monotropy 5) internal working model

Question 45

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Explain the adaptive term of bowblys theory

Answer 45

Attachments are adaptive They give humans an advantage Keep us safe Given food Kept warm by their caregiver

Question 46

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Explain the social releasers term of bowblys theory

Answer 46

-infants possess inborn social releaser which unlock an innate tendency in adults to care for them. social releasers are: -physical eg: button nose and big eyes -behavioural eg: crying, smiling to get attention

Question 47

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment what's bowlbys critical period

Answer 47

-between 0-2.5 years old -infants must form an attachment with their caregiver during this period, otherwise the child would be damaged for life, such as affection less psychopathy social, intellectual and emotional consequences for the infant

Question 48

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Explain the monotropy term of bowblys theory

Answer 48

infants form one very strong and special attachment with their mother, called monotropy. If the mother is not available, the infant can bond with another ever- present adult, known as a mother substitute.

Question 49

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Describe the internal working model term of bowlbys theory

Answer 49

Through the monotropic attachment, the infant would form an internal working model This is an internal template / schema for future relationship expectations. its shaped through early childhood experiences. A securely attached infant, having experienced sensitive caregiving, expects stable and loving relationships, while poor early attachments may lead to difficulties in future relationships.

Question 50

6. Bowlbys monotrpobc theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment Evaluate bowblys theory of attachment

Answer 50

P: socially sensitive implications Eg: Used by right wing & politicians to suggest that mothers should stay at home instead of sending children to day care and this could restrict women's roles even though Bowlby's aim was to actually boost women's roles Ex: suggests that monotropy can be restricting and can hinder women's progress and this has negative implications for society and hinders progression in the role of women and prevents equality being reached. L: negative implications on society and the economy by preventing child care workers from having a job and by preventing women from entering the workplace P: universal concept Eg: Ainsworth found 4 I that within a tribe in Uganda, the infants all had one primary attachment even though they had multiple carers Ex: conveys that across different cultures, this idea of monotropy is still evident and may not just be part of Western ideology and therefore Bowlby's theory is not an imposed etic L: increases its validity and generalisability and means we can apply it to all cultures so we can apply similar child-rearing practices across these different cultures using the findings of this theory P: monotropy could be overemphasised Eg: Thomas found that a network of attachments was better than one single monotropic bond in supporting all of the child's needs Ex: implies that while the monotropic bond is important, it also is important for the infant's survival to have a range of different bonds beyond the one main caregiver to give a well rounded level of care L: suggests that while research from this should be implemented into child care practices, it should still be considered that other attachments e.g. with the father are important and should not be dismissed.

Question 51

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment Define Ainworths strange situation as a way of studying the types of attachment

Answer 51

an observational method for testing strength of attachment between a caregiver and an infant devised by Ainsworth et al. (1971).

Question 52

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment Outline the use of the strange situation as a way of assessing types of attachment.

Answer 52

Aim: To investigate individual differences in attachment by observing how infants respond to separations and reunions with their caregiver. Procedure: A controlled observation with infants aged 12–18 months and their caregivers. Took place in a lab setting with 8 episodes, each lasting approx 3 minutes. Key behaviours observed: separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, reunion behaviour, and exploration. Based on these, infants were classified into three attachment types. Findings: Ainsworth identified three main attachment types: Secure (Type B) – 66%: explored happily, upset when caregiver left, comforted on return. Insecure-avoidant (Type A) – 22%: ignored caregiver, little distress on separation, avoided on return. Insecure-resistant (Type C) – 12%: clingy, very distressed when caregiver left, resisted comfort on return. Conclusion: Attachment types vary between individuals, and the caregiver’s sensitivity (responsiveness to the infant’s needs) plays a key role in the development of a secure attachment.

Question 53

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the first stage of the strange situation and what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 53

Parent and infant enter the room – Infant explores the environment tests safe base/exploration behaviour

Question 54

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the second stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 54

Stranger enters – Stranger talks to parent and approaches infant (tests stranger anxiety).

Question 55

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the third stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 55

Parent leaves – Stranger interacts with the infant tests separation anxiety + stranger anxiety

Question 56

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the fourth stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 56

Parent returns, stranger leaves – Reunion behaviour is observed (tests reunion behaviour).

Question 57

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the fifth stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 57

Parent leaves again – Infant is alone (tests separation anxiety).

Question 58

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the sixth stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 58

Stranger returns – Stranger tries to comfort and play with infant (tests stranger anxiety).

Question 59

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the seventh stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 59

Parent returns, stranger leaves – Reunion behaviour is observed again (tests reunion behaviour).

Question 60

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What is the eighth stage of the strange situation And what behaviour is being tested in it

Answer 60

Infant alone (sometimes repeated or observation ends) Final observations made Overall attachment behaviours assessed

Question 61

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment What are the 3 types of attachment proposed by Ainsworth

Answer 61

Type A: Insecure avoidant (22%) Type B: Secure (66%) Type C: Insecure resistant (12%)

Question 62

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment Identify and outline characteristics of secure (Type B) type of attachment

Answer 62

Exploration: infant explores unfamiliar environment, returning to the mother at regular intervals and using her as a safe-base Moderate separation anxiety: the infant’s play is disrupted when the mother leaves. Moderate stranger anxiety: the infant is wary of strangers and will move closer to the mother when she is present with the stranger. Reunion behaviour: infant seeks proximity and is easily comforted in her presence. The child shows joy on reunion mothers show sensitive responsiveness

Question 63

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment Identify and outline characteristics of insecure-avoidant (type A) type of attachment

Answer 63

Exploration: infant explores the unfamiliar environment but does not use her as a safe- base. Low separation anxiety: the infant is not concerned by the mother’s departure. Low stranger anxiety: the infant is unconcerned about stranger and shows little preference between mother and stranger. Reunion behaviour: infant shows little reaction upon the mothers return and often ignores her. The child does not seek proximity or show joy on reunion, i.e. avoids intimacy mothers show low sensitive responsiveness

Question 64

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment Identify and outline characteristics of insecure-resistant (type C) type of attachment

Answer 64

Exploration: infant does not explore the environment around them, choosing the stay close to the mother, i.e. being clingy. High separation anxiety: the infant is extremely distressed and violent when the mother leaves. High stranger anxiety: the infant becomes extremely distressed when the stranger goes to comfort them. Reunion behaviour: infant is not easily comforted by mother – seeks but rejects (resists) attempts of mother’s comfort on reunion. mothers are inconscistent with sensitive responsiveness

Question 65

7. Ainsworths strange situation: types of attachment 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Evaluate Ainworths strange situation

Answer 65

P: methodological strengths as its a highly reliable method Ex: the observation was strictly controlled in a laboratory setting with standardised procedures. for example, each child experienced the same eight episodes in the same order, and their behaviours were recorded systematically through video observation ex: furthermore, Ainsworth had several observers watching and coding the same behaviours fro. a predetermined behavioural categories and found a 94% agreement between observers L: high inter-observer reliability P: culture bias Eg: Grossman et al found that german infants were more likely to be classified as avoidant since independence is encouraged and Takahashi found that in Japan, mothers would rush to their babies and would hide the infants reaction as a result of their belief in amae Ex: suggests this is an imposed etic and we cannot apply these ideas necessarily to all cultures since its based on Western ideology and assumes that secure attachment is the 'gold standard' of attachment in which may be used to judge other cultures by, therefore it cannot be applied to all other cultures and this means we cannot establish universal attachment types as it will differ across different cUltures L: while some universal principles could be established, there would need to be specific ideas within each culture to allow for these cultural ideological differences P: Ainsworths classification system of attachment types is incomplete. Eg: Main and Solomon (1986) analysed several strange situation episodes via videotape and found a fourth attachment type called Type D: insecure-disorganised, and this showed a lack of consistency in social behaviour patterns. this type is a combination of insecure avoiding and insure reisstant types. Ex: Supporting this, Van IJzendoorn et al.’s meta-analysis found that around 15% of infants exhibited disorganised attachment, suggesting this category is not rare and has been overlooked in Ainsworth’s original research. L: Ainsworth’s original three-type classification may lack validity, as it fails to capture the full range of attachment behaviours seen in infants, particularly those with more disrupted or atypical caregiving experiences.

Question 66

8. cultural variations of attachment types Who did research into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 66

van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)

Question 67

8. cultural variations of attachment types Outline Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenbergs study into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 67

Aim: investigate cross-cultural variation in attachment Method: conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies from eight different countries that has used Ainsworth’s strange situation. In total, the results of over 1,990 infants were included in the analysis. Results: 1) Secure attachment was the most common and insecure was least common type of attachment 2) Japan (collectivist culture) showed highest levels of insecure–resistant attachment (27%) 3) Germany (an individualistic culture) showed higher levels of insecure–avoidant attachment (35%) Conclusion: Since the global trend seems to reflect the US norm of secure attachment being the most common, it adds weight to the argument that secure attachment is the optimal attachment type for healthy development.

Question 68

8. cultural variations of attachment types What research supports van lzjendoorn and cultural similarities

Answer 68

Tronick et al. (1992) The Efe tribe in Africa raises infants within extended families, where multiple women care for and even breastfeed them, though they sleep with their mothers at night. Despite these differing childrearing practices, infants still develop a primary attachment figure by six months, supporting Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s finding that secure attachment is the most common globally.

Question 69

8. cultural variations of attachment types Which research supports cultural differences in attachment

Answer 69

Grossman and Grossman (1991) In German culture, child rearing practices favour independence from a young age whereby infants do not seek interpersonal contact with their parents. As a result, infants from this country appear to be insecurely attached in the strange situation since they do not seek proximity to their mothers or joy upon reunion

Question 70

8. cultural variations of attachment types Evaluate van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenbergs study into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 70

A strength of Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is its use of a large sample size, which increases the validity and generalisability of the findings. E: the meta-analysis included data from over 2,000 infants across 32 studies in 8 different countries, all using the same Strange Situation procedure. Ex: This large and diverse sample reduces the impact of anomalies or outliers in individual studies and increases the population validity of the findings. It also allows for cross-cultural comparisons that are more representative of global attachment trends. L: the consistency of secure attachment being the most common type across cultures suggests attachment may be a universal behaviour, supporting Bowlby’s theory of attachment as biologically innate. A strength of Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is that the consistency of findings across cultures supports Bowlby’s theory of the universality of attachment. E: The study found that secure attachment was the most common attachment type in all 8 countries examined, even though the proportions of insecure types varied. E: This consistency suggests that secure attachment is a universal norm, which supports Bowlby’s claim that attachment is an innate biological process evolved for survival. Despite cultural differences in parenting, the widespread presence of secure attachment points to a shared human tendency. L: the study provides cross-cultural support for the idea that forming a secure attachment is a fundamental part of human development, reinforcing the validity of Bowlby’s monotropic theory. A limitation of Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is that it overgeneralises by treating each country as a single, uniform culture. E: The researchers compared attachment types between countries, such as Japan or the USA, but did not account for cultural differences within countries. For example, urban areas may have different child-rearing practices compared to rural areas. E: this is problematic because the study found that variation within countries was actually 1.5 times greater than between countries, suggesting that intra-cultural differences (within a country) may be more significant than inter-cultural differences (between countries). Therefore, assuming each country represents one culture can lead to misleading conclusions. L: This reduces the validity of the findings and suggests that attachment patterns should be studied with more cultural sensitivity, recognising subcultural diversity within nations.

Question 71

9. deprivation Outline Bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis

Answer 71

Deprivation occurs when an attachment bond is formed between an infant and caregiver but is broken later in life. if the Childs monotropic attachment is disrupted during the critical period due to prolonged separation from the mother, this deprivation has negative and irreversible consequences. - critical period: 2 and a half years but there's risks up to 5 years consequences of deprivation: - social development: delinquency eg: committing petty crime - emotional development: affectionless psychopathy: unable to show care or empathy to others and show little to no guilt for their harmful actions - intellectual development: low IQ: cognitive abilities are lower than peers - continuity hypothesis: deprivation effects the infants internal working model, leading to unsuccesssful relationships

Question 72

9. deprivation Describe Bowlbys key study into maternal deprivation

Answer 72

Aim: to see if deprivation was associated with behavioural disorders (affectionless psychopathy - individuals who have no sense of shame of guilt) Method: Children (5–16 years old) who had been referred to a guidance clinic in London. 44 of the children were criminals (guilty of theft) and 44 non-criminal ppts were used a control group. Bowlby interviewed the children and their families to create a record of early life experiences. Results: - 14/44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths - 12/14 of these affectionless psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged deprivation. - only 17% of the ‘other thieves’ had experienced such separations - 4% of the control group had experienced frequent early separations. Conclusion: findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment. The maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour.

Question 73

9. deprivation 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Evaluate Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation hypothesis

Answer 73

P: A limitation of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis is that it fails to account for individual differences in children's responses to separation. Eg: For example, Barrett (1997) reviewed studies on separation and found that securely attached children are more likely to be emotionally resilient, whereas insecurely attached children are more vulnerable and may struggle more with the effects of deprivation. Ex: This suggests that the impact of deprivation is not universal, and some children may cope well depending on their temperament or previous attachment experiences. L: Therefore, Bowlby’s theory may be too deterministic, assuming that all early separations will lead to negative outcomes, when in reality, the effects vary between individuals. P: Another criticism is that Bowlby may have confused deprivation (loss of attachment after it’s formed) with simple separation (absence of the mother). E: Rutter (1981) argued that Bowlby failed to distinguish between the two, and that it is privation (lack of attachment forming in the first place) that leads to more severe consequences. E: Rutter’s study of Romanian orphans showed that long-term effects were more strongly linked to severe institutional deprivation than brief maternal separations. L: This suggests Bowlby’s hypothesis may oversimplify the effects of early experiences, and later research has shown that the quality and duration of care matter more than separation alone. P: had a significant positive impact on childcare and social policies. Eg: Bowlby’s work influenced the way children are cared for in hospitals and institutions, and his ideas helped inform decisions about maintaining the mother–infant bond, even in difficult contexts like prisons. For example, in England in 2013, 45 mother and baby units were established across 7 prisons, and mothers were more likely to be given places if they demonstrated good parenting ability. Ex: This shows the lasting real-world application of Bowlby’s theory, promoting early and continuous emotional bonds to support healthy child development, even in non-traditional caregiving environments. L: Therefore, the maternal deprivation hypothesis not only contributed to psychological theory, but also helped shape social policies that protect the emotional needs of young children.

Question 74

10. effects of institutionalisation Outline Romanian orphanage studies including the effects of institutionalisation.

Answer 74

- 1990s Romanian political events allowed psychologists to study the effects of institutionalisation. - Under the dictatorship, abortion was banned, and couples were pressured to have many children to boost the population. - After 30 years, over 100,000 children were reportedly in 600 state-run orphanages.

Question 75

10. effects of institutionalisation Describe Rutter and Songua-Barkes key study into the effects of institutionalisation

Answer 75

Aim: examine the long-term effects of institutionalisation in a longitudinal study, beginning in the early 1990s, called the ERA (English and Romanian Adoptees). Method: 165 children who had spent their early years in a Romanian orphanage formed the experimental group. 111 of these children were adopted before the age of two, while the remaining 54 were adopted by the age of four. They were compared to a control group of 52 British children, who were adopted before they were six months old. The social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was examined at regular intervals (age 4, 6, 11 and 15) and interviews were conducted with adoptive parents and teachers. Results: - At adoption, Romanian orphans showed delayed physical, cognitive, and social development, including low weight and mental retardation. - Those adopted before 6 months mostly recovered and matched the British control group. - Those adopted after 6 months showed lasting deficits and were more likely to display disinhibited attachment and relationship difficulties. Conclusion: Institutionalisation can have severe long-term effects on development, especially if children are not provided with adequate emotional caregiving, i.e. adopted by two years old.

Question 76

10. effects of institutionalisation Describe the Bucharest Early Intervention Project: Zeenah et al. (2005) that investigates effects of institutionalisation

Answer 76

Aim: To investigate attachment type of children who had spent most of their life in institutional care. Methods: Zeenah et al. studied 95 children (12–31 months), 90% of whom had been institutionalized, comparing them to a control group raised at home. Attachment type was assessed using the Strange Situation, and caregivers reported behaviors like clinging and attention-seeking to identify disinhibited attachment disorder. Findings: While 74% of the control group were securely attached, only 19% of institutionalized children showed secure attachment, and 65% exhibited disinhibited attachment. Conclusion: Early institutional care, lacking consistent emotional caregiving, reduces secure attachment and increases disinhibited attachment.

Question 77

Evaluate effects of institutionalisation

Answer 77

P: Research supports the notion that privation (the lack of early attachment and social interaction) can have severe and long-lasting effects on cognitive, physical, and emotional development. Eg: Curtiss and Rymer (1977) studied Genie, a girl who was severely neglected, denied human interaction, and subjected to physical abuse, remaining in isolation until she was 13. As a result, Genie suffered significant cognitive and physical impairments, and these effects were long-term, as she struggled to develop basic language and social skills. Ex: This case demonstrates that privation can lead to profound developmental difficulties, including delays in cognitive and physical growth, supporting findings from institutionalised orphan studies. It also highlights how lack of early attachment can severely disrupt a child’s ability to form healthy relationships and function socially. L: Therefore, this research strengthens the argument that privation, like institutionalisation, has a negative impact on attachment and underscores the importance of ensuring that children receive adequate emotional and social care in their early years to avoid such detrimental outcomes. P: real world applications Eg: Langton found that children's homes have now aimed to avoid too many caregivers and give each child their own key worker Ex: shows that the evidence from this research has positive implications for society for ensuring these problems with institutionalisation are resolved which reduces the negative impacts on the child L: positive impacts for the economy by increasing the amount of children who have healthy and strong development which means they will be more effective workers P: Deprivation is just one factor in the negative effects of institutionalisation, and other environmental factors also play a crucial role. Eg: The Romanian orphanages were not only deprived of emotional care but also lacked basic stimulation, such as toys and cognitive interaction. Research by Muhamedrahimov (1991) also found that many children in these environments would cry without being attended to, further exacerbating their developmental difficulties. Ex: posisble that institutionalisation alone may not have led to problems and it may have been a combination of this with other factors which led to deficits in functioning which means we cannot make a conclusion that deprivation is the cause of problems L: evident that deprivation causes issues with attachment as well as with functioning but this also could be caused by other factors but the vast amount of research implies deprivation is a key factor

Question 78

11. influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships another research other than Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz (1987)

Answer 78

Sroufe et al. (2005) conducted the Minnesota child–parent study and found that infants who were rated high in social competence during childhood were more empathetic, popular and felt less isolated. These results can be understood by considering the role of the internal working model since infants who are securely attached will have positive expectations that others whom they relate to will be trustworthy and friendly in return, which provides the ideal platform for interacting with others during childhood.

Question 79

11. influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships describe Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz (1987)

Answer 79

Aim: To investigate whether early attachment types (from childhood) influence adult romantic relationships. Procedure: A "Love Quiz" was placed in a newspaper, measuring attachment type and beliefs about romantic love. 620 participants responded. Findings: Securely attached adults were more likely to have long-lasting, trusting relationships. Avoidant types feared intimacy and were less likely to depend on others. Resistant types were more clingy and worried about being abandoned. Conclusion: The results supported Bowlby’s internal working model, showing a link between early attachment style and adult relationship patterns.

Question 80

11. influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships Evaluate early attachments

Answer 80

P: research to support Eg: Hazan and Shaver put a love quiz in the lifestyle section of an American publication and received 620 responses. The quiz questioned them on attachment as a child and in their current relationship Ex: useful in supporting the idea of continuity into adulthood from previous attachment styles and therefore reinforces the importance of attachment in the long term L: This does convey a relationship between early attachment and later relatinoships but this may not be the same for all cultures and for males P: An alternative approach to understanding the influence of early attachment on romantic relationships is that negative life events can also play a significant role. Eg: Hamilton (2005) found that securely attached infants could still experience insecure romantic relationships if they encountered a negative life event, such as trauma or stress later in life. Ex: This suggests that while early attachment can influence romantic relationships, the impact of later experiences may be more significant than we initially perceive. L: Therefore, therapies addressing relationship difficulties should not focus solely on early childhood attachment but should also consider how subsequent life events shape attachment in adulthood. P: A limitation of research on early attachment and later relationships is that much of it is correlational. Eg: Studies like Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz and Sroufe (2005) are correlational in nature. Ex: This means causality cannot be established, and we cannot conclude that early attachment directly causes later relationship patterns, as other factors, such as parenting styles in adolescence or life experiences (e.g., trauma), could also influence relationship outcomes. L: Therefore, it is important to consider extraneous variables, such as later parenting and traumatic experiences, as well as early attachment, as these other factors can also significantly impact adult relationships.