Paper 2: Topic 5: Approaches

Question 1

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

Who’s the Father of Pschology

Answer 1

Wilhelm Wundt

Question 2

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

When and what was the name of Wundts first book

Answer 2

1873
‘Principles of Physiological Pyschology’

Question 3

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

When and where did Wundt open his first Pyschology labatory

Answer 3

1879
Leipzing, Germany

Question 4

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

What types of procedures did Wundt use to separate Pyschology from the roots of Pyschology

Answer 4

-Controlled
-standardised: same stimuli and instructions eg; ticking metronome
-objective

Question 5

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

Who used introspection to investigate the human mind and how

Answer 5

Wundt used introspection to study the mind by asking people to observe and describe their thoughts, feelings, and sensations when presented with a stimulus (e.g. a ticking metronome).
He controlled the environment and used standardised procedures, aiming for objectivity.

This process involved breaking down mental processes into basic elements—a method known as structuralism.

Question 6

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

Who used structuralism to investigate the human mind and what is it

Answer 6

The attempt to break down the human mind into its basic structures—thoughts, sensations, and perceptions.
Structuralism focuses on the structure of the mind rather than its function unlike introspection

Question 7

What happened in 1900

Answer 7

Freud propsed the psychodynamic approach. He highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind on behaviour and developed his own therapy called psychoanalysis

Question 8

What happened in 1879

Answer 8

Wundt opened the 1st experimental Pyschology lab in Germany. So Pyschology began to emerge as its own discipline. Before this Pyschology was regarded as an experimental branch in philosophy

Question 9

What happened in 1913

Answer 9

Watson and Skinner established the behaviourist approach.
They criticised Freud and Wundt, arguing the true scientific Pyschology should restrict itself to studying phenomena and can be directly observed and measured.
They believed that all behaviour is learnt

Question 10

What happened in the 1950’s

Answer 10

Rogers and Maslow developed the humanistic approach. They rejected the views put forward by behavioursit and pyschodynamic approaches and emphasised the importance of free will by attempting to understand the whole person

Question 11

What happened in the 1960s

Answer 11

Cognitive approach emerged with introduction of the computer.
It’s interested in studying mental processes; cognitive psychologists believe that we can make inferences about how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments

Question 12

What happened in 1980s

Answer 12

Biological approach began to surface as the dominant approach in Pyschology. Due to advances in technology eg: brain scans to increase psychologists understanding of the function of the human brain

Question 13

What happened in 2000’s

Answer 13

Cognitive neuroscience has emerged, which brings together the biological and cognitive approaches. Investigates how biological structures influence mental states

Question 14

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

Strengths of Wundt and emergence of science

Answer 14

P: A strength of Wundt’s contribution is that he helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.
Eg: He was the first to study behaviour using controlled, standardised methods like measuring reaction times.
Ex: This allowed for objective, replicable research, laying the foundation for experimental psychology and influencing future studies.
L: As a result, psychology is now widely recognised as a scientific field in universities so has strong application as most universities now have psychology departments recognized for their scientific standards.

Question 15

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

Limitations of Wundt and emergence of science

Answer 15

P: A limitation of Wundt’s work is that some methods, like introspection, lacked scientific rigor.
Eg: Introspection depended on participants describing their thoughts, which is inherently subjective.
Ex: Reports could be influenced by bias and varied between individuals, making findings unreliable. It also couldn’t access unconscious processes, limiting its usefulness. Modern psychology favors objective methods like brain imaging.
L: This shift highlights how psychology has progressed towards more reliable, scientific approaches.

P: A limitation of psychology’s claim to be a science is that not all approaches use scientific methods.
Eg: The humanistic approach rejects general laws, and the psychodynamic approach relies on unscientific case studies.
Ex: These methods are often subjective, hard to replicate, and prone to bias. Even experimental studies can suffer from demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
L: While this reduces scientific credibility, the variety of approaches still helps us understand complex human behaviour.

Question 16

1. Intro, Wundt and Psychology as a Science

The emergaence of Pyschology as a science

Answer 16

-Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
-Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
- Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
- Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
- An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.
-His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.

Question 17

2. Behaviourist Approach

Define the behaviours approach’s key assumptions

Answer 17

1. Psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour.
2. All behaviour can be reduced down to a stimulus response link
3. Humans are no different from animals and arent more complex so research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans.
4. Scientific methodology, behaviour is measured in highly controlled lab experiments, objectivity and control
5. When born our mid is a blank slate (tabula rasa), all behaviour is learnt from the environment through CC and OC

Question 18

2. Behaviourist Approach

Describe the behaviourist approach

Answer 18

A learning approach that suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning and all children are born as “tabulae rasae” (blank slates), learning through their interactions with their environment through a stimulus-response link
concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured through objective lab experiments

Question 19

2. Behaviourist Approach

Who proposed classical conditioning and what is it

Answer 19

Pavlov

a type of learning through association in which
an environmental unconditioned stimulus is paired with an uncontrolled response. through conditioning the unconditioned stimulus is consistently paired with the neutral stimulus . The neutral stimulus produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus so now the response is conditioned

Question 20

2. Behaviourist Approach

How did Pavlov test the theory of classical conditioning

Answer 20

using dogs as experimental subjects
conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (NS) with food (UCS) so dogs producing a salivation response (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS), even when no food was present

demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour

REMEMBER TO STATE THE STIMULUS AND RESPONSE KEY WORDS IN YOUR ANSWER

Question 21

2. Behaviourist Approach

Who proposed operant conditioning and what is it

Answer 21

Skinner suggested that behaviour is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions

A form of learning by direct consequences for behaviour, whether that be negitive and positive reinforcement (consequences that increase behaviour) or punishment (consequences that decrease behaviour).

Question 22

2. Behaviourist Approach

Describe Skimmers research into his operant conditioning theory

Answer 22

created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons as experimental subjects

Positive Reinforcement:
When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet (a reward). This increased the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
Negative Reinforcement:
A loud noise or electric current was stopped when the rat pressed the lever. Removing the unpleasant stimulus reinforced the behaviour.
Punishment:
In some versions, pressing the lever resulted in a shock. This reduced the likelihood of the behaviour happening again.

Question 23

2. Behaviourist Approach

What are the 3 types of reinforcement proposed by Skinner will affect our behaviour

Answer 23

1) positive reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) and is more likely to be repeated;
2) negative reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse stimuli and
is more likely to be repeated;
3) punishment – when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated

** dont confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant consequent which makes a behaviour MORE likely to be repeated; whereas, punishment makes a behaviour LESS likely to be repeated**

Question 24

2. Behaviourist Approach

Does the behavioural approach fall on the nature or nurture side of the nature v nurture debate

Answer 24

Suggets that all behaviour is learned, it falls on the nurture side.

In which our experiences and surroundings shape our behaviour directly rather than any internal or biological factors.
human mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) suggesting that at birth the mind is blank and throughout life, the slate is filled while behaviour is shaped through learning

Question 25

2. Behaviourist Approach Define environmental determinism in behavioural approach

Answer 25

behaviourists believe that behaviour is controlled by a stimulusresponse link, as in classical conditioning, is an example of environmental determinism. argue humans have little choice in their behaviour, and our behaviour is simply the product of environmental learning

Question 26

2. Behaviourist Approach Strength of behaviourist approach

Answer 26

P: A strength of the behaviourist approach is its strong explanatory power, which has advanced understanding and treatment of human behavior. Eg: Phobias are thought to develop through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes linked to an unpleasant experience. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors like gambling addiction are maintained through reinforcement. Ex: This has led to effective therapies like systematic desensitization, which reduces phobic reactions through gradual exposure and relaxation, and token economies, used to reinforce positive behavior in offender management and mental health care. L: This highlights the behaviourist approach’s real-world impact in understanding and treating behavior, improving mental health outcomes.

Question 27

2. Behaviourist Approach Limitations of behaviourist approach

Answer 27

P: A limitation of classical and operant conditioning is the reliance on animal research, which raises concerns about generalizing findings to human behavior. Eg: Pavlov’s and Skinner’s experiments with animals demonstrated conditioning principles, but human brains, especially the prefrontal cortex, are more complex, allowing higher-order thinking and social context to influence behavior. Ex: Mechanical responses from animal research may not fully explain human learning. While conditioning offers useful insights, integrating cognitive and social psychology provides a more complete understanding of behavior. L: This highlights the need to combine conditioning principles with insights from other psychological approaches for a more holistic view of human learning. P: reductionist view, which oversimplifies human behavior. Eg: Behaviourists argue behavior stems from stimulus-response links, ignoring internal processes like cognition, emotions, and biological factors. Cognitive psychologists emphasize mental processes, while biological psychologists highlight genetic and neurochemical influences. Ex: Skinner argued behavior must be observable to be scientific, but this neglects internal influences on behavior. Complex behaviors like decision-making and social interactions cannot be fully explained by conditioning alone. L: This underscores the need for a broader approach that combines behavioral, cognitive, and biological perspectives to better explain human behavior.

Question 28

3. SLT Define social learning theory

Answer 28

Based on the idea of observational learning: that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment. Development of the reductionist behaviourist approach of stimulus response link, SLT recognises mediational processes: stimulus -> internal mediational processes -> response • For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences are positve. • If they observe the model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of models that they identify with - A person becomes a model if they are seen to possess characteristics that the observer has or wishes to have. evidence, from Shutts et al., 2010, to suggest that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation. This cognitive appraisal process clearly distinguishes SLT from the more deterministic behaviourist approach • Mediational processes: mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating. 4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, production and motivation

Question 29

3. SLT Who proposed Social Learnimg Theory

Answer 29

Bandura he believed that observational learning, which he called modelling, is the most important process in human learning

Question 30

3. SLT How is SLT differnt to other behaviourist theories

Answer 30

Development of reductionist behaviourist approach of the stimulus response link, takes into the account the role of mediational processes (thoughts). According to Bandura, for SLT to take place, a person will form a mental representation of the behaviour and weigh up the pros and cons of being rewarded, before copying the behaviour. If the pros outweigh the cons, then they will imitate the observed behaviour

Question 31

3. SLT Desiree Bandura, Ross and Ross Bobo doll experiment

Answer 31

Aim: investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes: 1) Aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”. This group was further subdivided by the gender of child and the adult model 2) Non-aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set. This group was further sub-divided once again by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating another four conditions 3) Control – children saw no model. All were then deliberately frustrated and observed alone for 20 minutes with aggressive and non-aggressive toys, including a Bobo doll. Results: Children exposed to the aggressive model showed more aggression. Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models. Girls showed more physical aggression after observing male models, and more verbal aggression after observing female models. Conclusion: Children can learn aggressive behaviour by observing and imitating others.

Question 32

3. SLT How does Bandura take a nomothetic approach in SLT

Answer 32

his Bobo doll experiment and later work with other researchers investigating the role of vicarious learning in shaping behaviour, take a nomothetic approach as he attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied.

Question 33

3. SLT What are the 5 assumptions of SLT

Answer 33

-learning through others -importance of environmental and cognitive factors -role models -vicarious reinforcement -mediational processes

Question 34

3. SLT Define learning through others as an assumption of SLT

Answer 34

Bandura believed people learn through observation, modelling and imitation of others

Question 35

3. SLT Define importance of environmental and cognitive factors as an assumption of SLT

Answer 35

Bandura believe there’s important mental processes that occur between stimulus and response SLT forms a bridge between traditional behaviours and cognitive approach

Question 36

3. SLT 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Strengths of social learning theory

Answer 36

A strength of the key concept of the importance of similarity of role models is its plentiful research support. Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated 'virtual humans' who were similar to themselves and Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who donated blood. These studies demonstrate support for the idea that we are more likely to model behaviour when the role model is more identifiable with ourselves. This empirical evidence adds validity to a key principle of this theory.

Question 37

3. SLT 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Limitations of social learning theory

Answer 37

P: A limitation of social learning theory (SLT) is its failure to account for biological influences on behavior. Eg: Dabbs (1995) found that high testosterone levels can increase aggression, and Caspi et al. (2002) linked the MAOA gene to aggressive behavior, showing that biology plays a significant role. Ex: This is evident when aggressive behavior occurs without a clear role model, suggesting biological influences beyond observational learning. Combining SLT with biological perspectives would provide a more complete understanding of behavior. L: SLT’s inability to explain biological factors limits its explanatory power, highlighting the need for a more integrative approach. P: A limitation of Bandura’s research is that it has been criticized for being artificial and lacking real-world relevance. Eg: The controlled lab setting may have influenced participants’ behavior. For example, children might have acted aggressively toward the Bobo doll due to demand characteristics rather than genuine learning. Ex: Noble (1975) reported a child saying, "Look, Mummy, there's the doll we have to hit!"—suggesting that the children responded to perceived expectations rather than true observational learning. L: The artificial environment and demand characteristics reduce the study’s internal validity and raise doubts about whether the findings apply to real-life settings.

Question 38

4. Cognitive approach Define cognitive approach

Answer 38

A learning approach which likens the human mind to a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output. It suggests studying these internal processes by inference is the key to understanding human psychology. Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention and consciousness by inferring them from observation and measurement of visible human behaviour. It’s extended from the stimulus response proposed by behaviourist approach into: Stimulus -> internal mental processes -> response Concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour and developed as a reaction.

Question 39

3. SLT Define vicarious reinforcement as an assumption of SLT

Answer 39

If they observe the role model being rewarded they are likely to themselves, imitate this behaviour Learning occurs: -directly through operant and classical conditioning -Indirectly though vicarious reinforcement For indirect learning to occur, an individual must observe the behaviour of others, the may imitate this behaviour, but only if the consequences of this behaviour seems to be positve

Question 40

3. SLT Define mediational processes as an assumption of SLT

Answer 40

the mental event that determines whether an individual perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating. 4 distinct mediational processes are: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation Learning: attention and retention Performing: motor reproduction and motivation

Question 41

4. Cognitive approach 5 examples of cognitions in the cognitive approach

Answer 41

1) importance of inferences 2) computer analogy 3) role of theoretical models 4) role of schemas on mental processes 5) cognitive neuroscience

Question 42

4. Cognitive approach Define importance of inferences as an example of the cognitive approach

Answer 42

Cogntiviists rely on lab experiments: objective methods Mental internal processes are private and can’t be observed so are studied indirectly through inferences

Question 43

4. Cognitive approach Define computer analogy as an example of the cognitive approach

Answer 43

Thinks the human mind works like a computer, with internal mental processes turning an input to an output. It’s an Information processing model

Question 44

4. Cognitive approach Define role of theoretical models as an example of the cognitive approach

Answer 44

Cognitive psychologists study internal processes through theoretical models as visual representations of concepts Eg: multi-store model of memory and working memory model to understand memory

Question 45

4. Cognitive approach Define role of schemas on mental processes as an example of the cognitive approach amd strengths and limitations

Answer 45

Schemas are mental cognitive frameworks based on previous information/experiences that allows us to interpret new information efficiently. Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. Schemas can distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors They can also lead to stereotyping and therefore prejudice.

Question 46

4. Cognitive approach Define cognitive neuroscience as an example of the cognitive approach

Answer 46

Term coined by Miller "The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes." cognitive neuroscience bridges the gap between cognitive psychology and biological psychology by using techniques like brain imaging (e.g., fMRI and PET scans) to study how brain activity is linked to mental functions such as memory, perception, and attention.

Question 47

4. Cognitive Approach Define Imitation

Answer 47

A form of learning suggested by social learning theory, which proposes that people learn through copying the behaviour of a role model they identify With

Question 48

4. Cognitive approach Strengths of Cognitive Approach

Answer 48

P: A strength of the cognitive approach is its use of scientific and objective methods. Eg: Controlled lab experiments, such as those supporting the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) and the working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), allow researchers to isolate variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships. Ex: Controlled conditions enhance the reliability and validity of findings. The use of brain imaging techniques like PET and MRI scans provides empirical evidence for cognitive processes, increasing the objectivity of results. L: This emphasis on scientific methods strengthens the cognitive approach’s credibility and contribution to psychology as a rigorous scientific discipline. P: A strength of the cognitive approach is its integration with neuroscience, improving understanding of brain-behavior relationships. Eg: Cognitive neuroscience uses techniques like MRI and PET scans to study brain activity. Tulving et al. (1994) showed different brain regions are activated during episodic and semantic memory tasks. Ex: This interdisciplinary approach links mental processes to brain function, bridging psychological theory and biological evidence. L: The cognitive approach’s connection with neuroscience provides a more comprehensive understanding of the mind and brain.

Question 49

4. Cognitive approach Limitation of Cognitive Approach

Answer 49

P: A limitation of the cognitive approach is its reliance on inference to understand mental processes. Eg: Cognitive psychologists often infer memory processes from performance in recall tasks rather than directly observing them. Ex: These inferences are based on theoretical assumptions, which may lead to subjective biases and flawed conclusions if the interpretations are incorrect. L: This reliance on inference introduces uncertainty and subjectivity, limiting the accuracy of cognitive theories.

Question 50

5. Biological Approach Define biological approach

Answer 50

Assumes all human behaviour has biological origin and states that to comprehend human behaviour fully, it’s necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes including genes, nervous system and neurochemistry and hormones

Question 51

5. Biological Approach Define genetic explaination as part of the biological approach

Answer 51

Genes are passed from one gen to the next. They carry info in the form of DNA in chromosomes, which carries instructions for characteristics Genotype: a persons genetic makeup fixed from birth pairing of alleles for a specific trait Phenotype: expression of their geens which lead to observable charectaristics of a person due to combined effect of genes and environment Behaviour Geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics eg: intelligence + mental disorders are inherited the same way as physical characteristics are Research used monozygotic twins who share 100% of their DNA and dizygotic twins who share 50% Gottesman found MZ twins have a 48% concordance rate of developing schizophrenia compared to 17% for DZ twins. McGuffin found if one identical has depression, there’s a 46% chance that the other twin will also. Suggesting a genetic component to illnesses like schizophrenia and depression

Question 52

5. Biological Approach Define neural system as part of the biological approach

Answer 52

Biological psychologists believe the structure of organs eg: brain, central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and endocrine system determine our behaviour. The nervous system transmits messages through neurons. Human behaviour like eating (feeling hungry) and breathing. Research’s shown differnt lobes of the brain are linked to general functions eg: parietal lobe is linked to the processing of sensory info Case study Phineas Gage: lost his ability to inhibit antisocial behaviour after iron bar destroyed of his frontal cortex demon staring the influence of a biological structure on behaviour (inhibition)

Question 53

5. Biological Approach Define influence of neurochemistry as part of the biological approach

Answer 53

Behaviour is influenced by neurotransmitters (chemical messengers between neurons) and hormones (chemicals released into the bloodstream affecting target organs). Neurotransmitters: Imbalances can lead to atypical behaviour. Crockett et al. (2008): Found that low levels of serotonin were linked to increased aggression and reduced impulse control, suggesting serotonin plays a key role in regulating mood and behaviour. Hormones: Affect behaviour by influencing physiological responses. Carre et al. (2006): Found that testosterone levels in Canadian ice hockey players were linked to increased aggression and territorial behaviour, especially when defending home territory.

Question 54

5. Biological Approach Define evolution and behaviour as part of the biological approach

Answer 54

Darwin’s natural selection ensures characteristics provide evolutionary advantages like survival and are passed from one gen to the next, whilst others which do not die out Buss’s survey of heterosexual mate selection. Across 37 countries studied, he found men preferred good looks, youth and chastity and women prefer good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability. Suggests certain behaviours and traits have evolved as they promote better prospects for passing on genes

Question 55

5. Biological Approach Strengths of Biological Approach

Answer 55

P: A strength of the biological approach is its reliance on scientific methods to investigate psychological phenomena. Eg: Techniques like fMRI, PET scans, genetic testing, and biochemical analysis provide objective, quantifiable data. For instance, fMRI studies (e.g., Maguire et al., 2000) show how different brain areas are involved in cognitive tasks. Ex: These methods enhance the reliability and validity of findings by offering objective measurements, reducing bias, and allowing replication, a cornerstone of scientific inquiry. L: However, focusing solely on biological factors can lead to reductionism, overlooking environmental and psychological influences. A more holistic approach may be needed for a complete understanding of behavior. P: A strength of the biological approach is its real-world applications. Eg: Research on neurochemical activity has led to psychoactive drugs, such as SSRIs, used to treat mental disorders like depression. Ex: These treatments have improved quality of life for many patients and provided a medical model of mental health, reducing stigma and offering an explanation for mental illness. L: However, about 30% of patients do not respond to antidepressants, suggesting that other factors beyond biological influences play a role in mental disorders. This indicates the need to integrate biological with other approaches for a comprehensive understanding of mental health.

Question 56

5. Biological Approach Limitations of Biological Approach

Answer 56

P: A limitation of the biological approach is that causation is often implied but cannot be established due to the correlational nature of many studies. Eg: For example, Juckel et al. (2006) found reduced activity in the ventral striatum in individuals with schizophrenia, which is associated with negative symptoms like avolition. Ex: While this study shows a correlation between brain activity and behavior, it does not prove that reduced brain activity causes the behavior or vice versa. This limits the ability to establish causal relationships. L: This reliance on correlational data raises concerns about the validity of conclusions and suggests that other factors, such as environmental or psychological influences, must also be considered for a more comprehensive understanding.

Question 57

6. Psychodynamic Approach Define psychodynamic approach

Answer 57

Freud proposed the notion of the unconscious The three main assumptions: personality has a discernible structure (ID, ego, superego), that it’s constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development throughout infancy and adolescence, the unconscious conflicts in the personality are mediated by defence mechanisms

Question 58

6. Psychodynamic Approach Describe the role of the unconscious as part of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 58

Parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness Iceberg metaphor to explain this: Consciousness: small part we’re aware of (top of ice berg) Unconscious: larger part of the human mind (beneath the surface) we’re not directly aware of or able to access it at will Traumatic memories from childhood are repressed in the unconscious mind hidden from conscious awareness But aren’t truely forgotten and can be explored through psychoanalysis Unconcouis mind reveals itself in dreams, fantasies and Freudian slips

Question 59

6. Psychodynamic Approach Describe the structure of the personality: ID, ego and superego as part of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 59

personality is made up of 3 parts; the id, ego and superego. Id: erotic energy. Governed by pleasure principle. Consists of drives and seeks nothing but pleasure and gratification. Presented at birth. Focuses on self (selfish), irrational and emotional, deals with feelings and needs unconscious part of the mind Ego: governed by reality principle. Tasked with taming the Id and balancing the demands of the superego. Arises in response to control of others especially parents during the anal stage of development around 2 years old. Rational, balancing the id and superego. conscious part of the mind. Superego: governed by morality principle. Our sense of right and wrong. Characterised by the ‘inner voice’ telling us we’ve crossed into the boundaries of unacceptable behaviour. The internalised parent and develops in response to parental discipline at 5 years old. acts as the conscience or moral guide. unconscious part of the mind

Question 60

6. Psychodynamic Approach Describe defence mechanisms as part of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 60

Strategies employed by the ego to protect the mind from feelings that may be too overwhelming by coping with conflicting demands of the demanding superego and id. Ego works by distorting reality so individual can continue with everyday life without unpleasant feelings dominating their conscious awareness. 1)Repression: occurs when traumatic or distressing memory is forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind 2) Denial: involves a refusal to accept the reality of a situation, acting as though nothing distressing has happened 3) displacement: feelings towards a target individual can’t be expressed directly and is transferred onto something/one else

Question 61

6. Psychodynamic Approach define denial

Answer 61

A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This is the complete refusal to acknowledge the occurrence of an event, in an attempt to prevent harm.

Question 62

6. Psychodynamic Approach define displacement

Answer 62

A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This mechanism works by substituting the real target of overwhelming emotions with a (usually) defenceless target. This allows for a cathartic release of emotions that would not be possible with the original target.

Question 63

6. Psychodynamic Approach define repression

Answer 63

A defence mechanism utilised by the unconscious mind. This mechanism prevents disturbing thoughts/memories reaching the conscious mind, in an attempt to prevent harm.

Question 64

6. Psychodynamic Approach Describe psychosexual stages as part of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 64

Oral stage: 0-2 years Focus: mouth Infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, sucking and biting If unresolved: oral fixation eg: smoking and nail-biting Anal: 2-3 years Focus: anus Child becomes aware of reality principle (ego develops) imposed by parents. Must undergo potty training to control bowel movements If unresolved: anal fixation in 2 ways: 1) anal retentive: obsessive perfectionist 2) anal expulsive: messy and thoughtless Phallic 3-6 years Focus: genitals Oedipus and electra complex infant boys and girls must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother and father by identifying with the other parent. Superego develops If unresolved: phallic fixation or phallic personal might manifest in reckless and narcissistic behaviours Latent stage: 6 years to puberty Focus: hidden Sexual energy goes from driven to latent so indivual can focus on world around them and forming friendships Genital stage: Puberty + Focus: forming heterosexual relationships Culminates with psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals to be directed towards formation of adult relationships If unresolved: struggle to form heterosexual relationships

Question 65

6. Psychodynamic Approach 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Strengths of Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 65

P: A strength of the psychodynamic approach is the empirical research supporting the effectiveness of psychoanalysis. Eg: Biskup et al. (2005) found that 77% of 36 patients showed significant improvements after psychoanalytic therapy. Additionally, Bachrach et al. (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of major studies, showing psychoanalysis' effectiveness for many patients. Ex: These findings highlight the practical benefits of psychodynamic therapy in treating various psychological disorders, supported by empirical evidence. Techniques like dream analysis and transference interpretation help patients understand unconscious motivations and past influences on current behavior. L: Despite limited empirical support for psychodynamic theories, the effectiveness of psychodynamic treatments suggests their value in addressing complex psychological issues.

Question 66

6. Psychodynamic Approach 8/16 marker hasn’t come up before: Limitations of Psychodynamic approach

Answer 66

P: A major limitation of the psychodynamic theory is that it has been criticized for being unscientific and untestable. Eg: Core concepts such as the id, ego, and superego cannot be directly examined or measured, making the theory empirically untestable. Ex: Karl Popper's criterion of falsifiability suggests that for a theory to be scientific, it must be capable of being proven false. Freud's theory, based on subjective interpretations and lacking objective evidence, fails to meet this criterion. L: As a result, despite Freud's influence, his theories are not widely covered in modern psychology courses due to their lack of scientific rigor and limited impact in contemporary research. P: A limitation of Freud's theory is its significant gender bias, as his theories were predominantly androcentric. Eg: Freud's focus on the Oedipus complex centers on male psychological development, and his concept of "penis envy" suggests women are inferior to men. Ex: This gender bias limits the theory's relevance to understanding female psychology, undermining its applicability and validity. L: However, adaptations by female psychoanalysts, such as Melanie Klein, have expanded Freud's theories, offering more inclusive insights into female behavior and development.

Question 67

7. Humanistic Approach Define humanistic approach

Answer 67

Founded by Maslow and Rogers Focused on discovering what it means to be fully human as they believe other Pyschology approaches are reductionist, deterministic and can’t explain the holistic complexity of human behaviour

Question 68

7. Humanistic Approach Define free will as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 68

Assumes every individual can assert free will and has a choice in how they behave. Everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny. free will: The idea that we are in full control of our behaviour and decisions.

Question 69

7. Humanistic Approach Define Maslows heirarchy of needs as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 69

Model of psychological development. -Maslow suggested that individuals are intrinsically motivated to 'work up' through the hierarchy step-by-step -The needs become more psychological as you move up -They needs are harder to satisfy the higher up you go Self actualisation: morality, creativity Self esteem: confidence, respect Love and belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy Safety and security: security of body, employment, health Physiological needs: breathing, food, sex, sleep Deficiency needs + growth needs Work up the heirarchy step by step

Question 70

7. Humanistic Approach Define Self actualisation of needs as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 70

An achievement provides possibility of true self-awareness. Takes form of peak experienced which are charecatised by feelings of euphoria, without any fear or inhibitions. Maslow cited Albert Einstein who achieved self actualisation through creativeness Self actualisation means that a person becomes the best version of themselves they can be and reaches their full potential, which can be achieved after primarv needs have been met

Question 71

7. Humanistic Approach Define focus on the self as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 71

Rogers interested in the 2 basic needs: - need for self-worth -need for unconditional positive regard for other people self worth: Rogers argues self-worth emerges from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood, and later with friends and partners, which directly impacts on psychological wellbeing. Unconditional positive regard: This means that love and acceptance is unconditional. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake. People who are able to self-actualise are more likely to have received positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood. Both emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood and then friend and partners An individuals self worth has a direct impact on psychological well being

Question 72

7. Humanistic Approach Define role of conditions of worth as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 72

Conditions of worth mean that individuals feel they must behave in certain ways to receive this positive regard. If a person has conditions of worth they only receive conditional positive regard.

Question 73

7. Humanistic Approach Define congruence as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 73

Rogers focused on ‘the self’ Persons ideal self and actual self are aligned and are very similar.

Question 74

7. Humanistic Approach Define influence on counselling Pyschology as a part of the humanistic approach

Answer 74

Roger's believed that through taking a person-centered approach to counselling. * The role of the therapist in this process is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition. * This will help to close the gap between the perceived and the ideal self * The gap can be reduced by developing a more healthy view of oneself or has a more achievable and realistic ideal self

Question 75

7. Humanistic Approach Strengths of humanistic approach

Answer 75

P: A significant strength of humanistic psychology is its profound influence on psychological counseling. Eg: Carl Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard is widely applied in therapy, where therapists accept and respect clients without judgment. For example, a therapist may help a client with low self-esteem to recognize their worth, reducing the gap between their actual and ideal selves. Ex: Humanistic principles have also been applied in workplace settings, with Maslow's hierarchy of needs being used to understand employee motivation. Companies use this hierarchy to ensure basic needs, such as job security and fair compensation, are met before encouraging personal development. L: The contributions of Rogers and Maslow have shaped contemporary therapeutic practices, emphasizing empathy, authenticity, and a deeper understanding of the human experience. P: A strength of the humanistic approach is its holistic perspective, rejecting reductionist methods of studying human behavior. Eg: Humanistic psychology focuses on areas like consciousness and emotion, which are difficult to study scientifically and require more subjective methods. Techniques like client-centered therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, emphasize empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening to foster personal growth. Ex: Through qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, humanistic psychology provides insights into individual behavior and human experiences that more scientific approaches might overlook. L: While most psychologists advocate for scientific methods, humanistic psychology arguably offers a deeper understanding of the richness of the human experience by focusing on the whole person.

Question 76

7. Humanistic Approach Limitation of the humanistic approach

Answer 76

P: A limitation is its ethnocentric bias, as it is primarily based on ideals from Westernized cultures. Eg: Core concepts of humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, align more with individualistic cultures, like those in the UK and USA, which emphasize personal achievement over collective well-being. Ex: Nevis (1983) conducted a study in China, showing that belongingness needs were considered more fundamental than self-esteem needs, contrary to Maslow's hierarchy, which prioritizes self-fulfillment. This suggests that in collectivist societies, social and relational needs are prioritized over individualistic goals. L: Therefore, while the humanistic approach offers valuable insights within Western contexts, its ethnocentric bias limits its generalizability to collectivist cultures.

Question 77

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the biological approach take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 77

Biological determinism Behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors e.g. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters,

Question 78

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the biological approach take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 78

Nature Behaviour is the result of innate biological factors (e.g. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters,

Question 79

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the biological approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 79

Biological Reductionism Behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes.

Question 80

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the biological approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 80

Nomothetic Creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiologies.

Question 81

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the biological approach scientific?

Answer 81

Scientific The biological approach promotes scientific methods of investigation (e.g. brain imaging)

Question 82

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 82

Environmental determinism Behaviours controlled by stimulus response conditioning

Question 83

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 83

Nurture humans are born as a tabula rasa and behaviour is learnt

Question 84

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 84

Environmental reductionism Behaviour is broken down into simple stimulus response links

Question 85

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the behaviourist approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 85

Nomothetic Creates universal laws, as behaviour is the result of a stimulus response link

Question 86

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the behaviourist approach scientific

Answer 86

Scientific The behaviourist approach utilises scientific method of investigation eg: lab experiments and animal research

Question 87

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the social learning theory take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 87

Soft determinism Behaviour is controlled by environmental forces however, humans have personal responsibility and free choice

Question 88

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the social learning theory take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 88

Nurture Behaviour is learnt from observation and vicarious reinforcement

Question 89

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the social learning theory take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 89

Partially reductionist Shares elements of the behaviourist and cognitive approach

Question 90

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the social learning theory take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 90

Nomothetic Attempt to establish general laws of behaviour (eg: vicarious reinforcement)

Question 91

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the social learning theory scientific

Answer 91

Mostly scientific Utilises scientific methods, but also takes into account mediational processes

Question 92

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the cognitive approach take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 92

Soft determinism Behaviour is controlled by mediational processes that humans can choose what information they intend to

Question 93

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the cognitive approach take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 93

Both Behaviour is the product of information processing and modified by experience

Question 94

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the cognitive approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 94

Experimental reductionism Behaviour is investigated in terms of isolated variables eg: capacity of STM

Question 95

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the cognitive approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 95

Both Attempts to establish general laws of cognitive processing, but utilises an idiographic approach with case studies

Question 96

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the cognitive approach scientific

Answer 96

Mostly scientific Utilises scientific methods of investigation, but researchers are unable to directly observe cognitive processes

Question 97

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 97

Psychic determinism Behaviour is determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences

Question 98

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 98

Mostly nature Behaviour is the product of innate drives , but shaped by early childhood experiences

Question 99

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 99

Both Behaviour is reduced to innate drives , while taking into account the multiple aspects of human behaviour

Question 100

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the psychodynamic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 100

Both Attempt to establish general laws in relation to innate drives , whilst considering unique experiences during childhood

Question 101

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the psychodynamic approach scientific

Answer 101

Not scientific Examines many concepts and theories, which cannot be a empirically tested . Relies on subjective interpretation.

Question 102

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the humanistic approach take in the free will vs determinism approach

Answer 102

Free will Humans control their own environment and are capable of change

Question 103

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the humanistic approach take in the nature vs nurture approach

Answer 103

Mostly nurture Behaviour are shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation

Question 104

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the humanistic approach take in the reductionism vs holism approach

Answer 104

Holism Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction

Question 105

8. Comparison of Approaches Which side does the humanistic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic approach

Answer 105

Idiographic Focuses on the subject of human experience, and makes no attempt to create general laws

Question 106

8. Comparison of Approaches Is the humanistic approach scientific

Answer 106

Not scientific Reject scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence