Paper 2

Question 1

Where was first psych laboratory and when was it open

Answer 1

Germany 1879

Question 2

Introspection

Answer 2

An individual interpreting their own mental processes
Highly trained observers would report the content of their own thoughts when presented with a stimuli such as a metronome. This was conducted in a highly controlled environment with the same stimuli and the same standardised instructions were issued to all pps

Question 3

Wundt Eval

Answer 3

Use of scientific lab methods when studying human mind
Subjective- self report and unreplicable
Lead to emergence of psychology as a science instead of philosophy

Question 4

Behaviourist approach assumptions

Answer 4

All behaviour is learnt and determined by environment
Process of learning in animals and humans are the same
Only studies observable behaviour not internal mental processes

Question 5

Classical conditioning

Answer 5

We learn via association
Unconditioned stimulus leads to unconditioned response
Neural stimulus leads to no response
Paired ucs and ns leads to ucr
Eventually ns becomes cs and creates cr
Pavlov dogs- origanu digestion but found dogs salivated when the heard the researchers coming to feed them

Question 6

Operant conditioning

Answer 6

Learn via consequences
Pos reinforcement- behaviour is rewarded
Neg reinforcement- behaviour leads to stopping somthing unpleasant
Punishment- behaviour leads to unpleasant
Skinners box

Question 7

Behavioural evaluation

Answer 7

Watson and raybor little Albert
Application- token economy and phobia therapy
Scientific- objective and controlled reaserch
Over emphasis on nurture- limited view in origins of behaviour and ignores internal mental processes

Question 8

Social learning theory assumptions

Answer 8

Behaviour is learned from environment
Learning takes place thorough observation and imitation

Question 9

Social learning theory factors effecting imitation

Answer 9

Models are more likely to be imitated if the child or duality identify with them
More likely to copy when seeing someone be rewarded- vicarious reinforcement
Mediational processing - prior to imitation
Attention- pay attention to the behaviour
Retention- notice and be aware is behaviour
Reproduction- ability and skills to reproduce it
Motivation- they should want to reproduce it in first place

Question 10

SLT Eval

Answer 10

Evidence- bobo doll- children observed the adult being punished - less likely to imitate- adult being rewarded- more likely to imitate
Regulation and watershed
High control but not realistic- children may think that’s how they play with the toy and it’s not a real person
Overemthisis on nurture- testosterone linked to aggression however it is not deterministic as it takes into account mediational processes

Question 11

Cognitive approach assumptions

Answer 11

Focuses on the study of internal mental processes in a scientific way
Mental processes cannot be directly observed so are inferred
Humans are information processors and the mind works like a computer

Question 12

Schemas

Answer 12

Information processing model
Perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks built from experience - organise and interpret info in brain
Make sense of an ambiguous world by filling in the gaps in our knowledge thus enables us to act comfortably even when our info is incomplete

Question 13

Theoretical and computer models

Answer 13

One way cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes is through theretical models. One important theoretical model is the information processing approach. This approach suggests the information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input and retrieval
An example of a theruetical model is the multistore model of memory
Computer models make inferences about internal mental processes. They compare the mind to a computer suggesting there are similarities in information processing.
They both uses the central processing unit- brain- coding and stores to hold information.

Question 14

Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 14

Influence of brain structure in internal mental processes
Advances in brain imaging techniques has enabled reasrchers to understand how a the brain supports a variety of different cognitive activities and emotions in illustrating which parts are active during specific tasks
For example turving pet scans for ltm
Studying damaged patents to reveal info of what that part of the brain does

Question 15

Cognitive eval

Answer 15

Alport and postman- expectations based on stereotypical schemas can distort memories
Application - cbt changes way a person processes information
Scientific credibility- cog neuroscience
Machine reductionism- ignores emotion and motivation

Question 16

Bio approach assumptions

Answer 16

Human behaviour can be explain by biological processes such as hormones genetics evolution and the nervous system
Draws on concepts from hard sciences and research tends to be scientific in nature

Question 17

Genetic

Answer 17

Genes an individual possesses determine behaviours and characteristics
Genotype is an individual’s genetic make up
Phenotype is the product of that happens to the genotype interacts with the environment
Criminal- maoa gene found in 10% of criminals
OCD - sert and comt
Twin studies - compare concordance rates of mz twins to dz twins- if a certain chararistic is higher in mz it is likely to have a genetic basis

Question 18

Evolution

Answer 18

Based on natural selection- strongest survive and genes are passed down
Certain behaviours exist because they are adaptive
Bowlby - monotropuc attachments are as survival advantage

Question 19

Biological structure

Answer 19

Interactions between regions of the brain help to control different functions which presumably determine our actions
Different brain areas are responsible for different types of thinking or behaviour.

Question 20

Neurochemistry

Answer 20

Neurotransmitters are thought to effect behaviour- dopamine and serotonin in ocd
Dopamine in sz

Question 21

Biological Eval

Answer 21

Christiansen- concordance rates for criminal behaviour in 87 mz twins and 147 dz twins. Concordance rates 33%for mz and 12% in dz. genes have a role in criminal behaviour
Practical application- drug therapy ssris- manage symptoms and cont to economy
Scientific credibility- brainscans, twin studies and lab but hard to establish cause and effect- do neurotransmitters cause ocd or vice versa
Incomplete- only focuses on nature twin studies not 100% so must be nurture- interactionist should be considered to explain behaviour

Question 22

Psychodynamic assumptions

Answer 22

Behaviour is determined by unconscious forces of which we are unaware
The way that we are treated by our parents as a child shape our adult behaviour and personality

Question 23

Role of unconscious

Answer 23

Most of the mind is made up of the unconscious which we are not consciously aware of
This houses biological drives and instincts also threatening or disturbing memories which have been repressed

Question 24

Structure of personality

Answer 24

According to Freud personality is made up of 3 elements. The jd which operates on our pleasure principle and is selfish and demands immediate gratification. The ego is the reality principle which mediates the other parts of our personality. The super ego is the morality principle which is internalised from the moral standards of the child’s same sex parents.

Question 25

Defense mechanisms

Answer 25

Help the ego balence the conflicting demands of the id and super ego. These mechanisms are uncomfortable and act to reduce anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed by traumas threats and guilt. Repression- forcing a distressing memory into the unconscious to protect the concious from fear and anxiety Denial- refusing to accept or acknowledge some aspect of reality Displacement- transferring distressing emotions from the true source onto a substitute target

Question 26

Psychosexual stages

Answer 26

Development occurred in 5 stages Each stage except latency is associated with a different conflict the child must resolve in other to progress successfully onto the next stage. Any conflicts that are unresolved leads to a fixation where the child is stuck at this stage and leads to behaviours associated with this stage being carried on into adulthood hood. Oral- 0-1 Anal- 1-3 Phallic- 3-5 Latency -6 to puberty Genital from puberty

Question 27

Psychodynamic eval

Answer 27

Little hans- 4 year old who had phobia of horses- Freud said this was because the horses reminded him of his father who had a beard and moustache and he was experiencing castration anxiety- once his Oedipus was resolved his fear was gone Application to psychoanalysis- successfully test mild neurosis but innapropriate for sz Unscientific- unconscious cannot be proven or disproven- not falsifiable Psychic deterministic

Question 28

Humanistic assumptions

Answer 28

Every person has their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world Rejects objective scientific methods and establishing general laws

Question 29

Self actualisation and maslows hiarchy of needs

Answer 29

Every humans has the innate tendency to achieve their full potential and become the best they can possibly be. Self actualisation is the highest level of the hiarchy of needs. All four levels have to be met before the individual can achieve self actualisation and fulfil their potential. Physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self actualisation Self actualised characteristics- self aware, accepting of them self, ablility to deal with uncertainty and strong sense of creativity

Question 30

The self and conditions of worth

Answer 30

Unconditional positive regard- a person gets affection no matter what their behaviour is like Conditions of worth- approval and affection as a result of behaving in a certain way This can stop someone self actualising as they are focusing on keeping others happy rather than them selves Congerance is a little difference between a persons ideal self and actual self

Question 31

Humanistic Eval

Answer 31

Arnoff- compare people in two jobs in the British West Indies- fishermen and cane cutters. Cane cutters get paid according to how much was cut by the whole group even when they were off. The fishermen worked alone doing more challenging work so their jobs were less secure despite bing payed more. Both groups were assessed to see what hatch of needs they were in. The cane cutters were on lower levels than the fishermen who have satisfied the lower levels. Only men who had satisfied the lower levels of the hiarchy of needs would choose to become fisherman allowing them to develop high esteem Practical application Roger’s client centres therapy- uses unconditional positive regard to make people congerant Unscientific- based on ideographic meathods and aspects are unfalsfiable Free will and holistic

Question 32

Nervous system

Answer 32

A specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system It collects, processes and responds to information in the environment and cooodingates different organs and cells

Question 33

Central nervous system

Answer 33

Controls and regulates all the physiological processes of the individual Spinal cord- relays information between the brain and body. It is also responsible for reflex actions which do not involve the brain Brain- divided into two hemispheres. It is the centre of concious awareness.

Question 34

Peripheral nervous system

Answer 34

Extends beyond cns Relays messages from the cns to the rest of the body Made up of the somatic and autonomic

Question 35

Somatic

Answer 35

Important for voluntary movement Made up of sensory pathways and motor pathways

Question 36

Autonomic

Answer 36

Made up of motor pathways Regulates involuntary processes like digestion Made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic

Question 37

Sympathetic nervous system

Answer 37

Deals with emergency’s such as fight or flight. Prepare body for action. Heart rate and blood pressure increase and digestion slows

Question 38

Parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 38

Returns the body to normal after fight or flight

Question 39

Endocrine system

Answer 39

Works alongside nervous system to control vital functions in the body Network of glands that produce hormones

Question 40

Pituitary gland

Answer 40

Connected to hyper thalamus which is responsible for releasing hormones from the pituitary gland Release adrenicortical tropic hormone which stimuthe adrenal cortex during the stress response

Question 41

The adrenal gland

Answer 41

Decided int adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex The adrenal medulla release adrenaline and noradrenaline which play a key role in fight or fight Adrenals cortex releases cortisol which stimulus the release fo glucose to provide the body with energy while supressing the immune system

Question 42

Fight or flight response process

Answer 42

Three percived by amygdala and the hypothalamus is activated The hypothalamus commands the autonomic nervous system and agates the sympathetic branch At the same time the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone, this effects the adrenal medulla causing it to release adrenaline into the blood Adernaline causes physiological changes necessary for fight or flight. This includes increase heart rate, pupil dilation and increased breathing rate. Reduction of non essential functions such as digestion. Following the fight or flight response the parasympathetic nervous system returns it to its resting state.

Question 43

Fight or flight evaluation

Answer 43

Might have been useful for ancestors who faced life threatening situations, modern day life rarely requires such an intense biological response. Therefore problems arise when the stress response is activated repeatedly without using excess energy produced. The fight or flight response may not be the first response to a threat. Gray argues that humans display an initial freeze response where they are hyper alert to danger. This allows them gather information and assess the situation before choosing to fight or run away. This suggests when faced with a dangerous situation, our response is not limited to fight or flight response. Early research into the fight or flight response is Androcentric and consequently , reasearchers assumed that the findings could be generalised to women. Women are generally not as fast or strong as men therefore fighting or running away are but always the best strategists. Taylor et al suggested women may naturally be more inclined to tend and befriend. This matters as it suggests there are gender differences in responses to threat.

Question 44

Sensory neuron

Answer 44

Afferent as the send impulses from the sense receptors towards the cns Inform brain about internal and external environment Unipolar as they have one process which attaches to the cell body Long dendrites and short axons

Question 45

Relay neuron

Answer 45

Multipolar neurons only found in the brain and spinal chord Transfer messages from sensory neurons to motor neurons Short dendrites and either long or short axons

Question 46

Motor neurons

Answer 46

Efferent neurons as the carry messages away from cns to effectors such as muscles and organs Multipolar as they have 3 or more processes attached to the cell body Long axons and short dendrites

Question 47

Reflex action

Answer 47

Quick response with no involvement of the brain Controlled by reflex arc When the safety of an organism demands a very quick response, the signals may be passed directly form sensory neurons via a relay neuron to a motor neuron for an instant action

Question 48

Stages of synaptic transmission

Answer 48

Nerve impulse travels down an axon Nerve impulse reaches pre synaptic terminal This triggers the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles The neurotransmitters are fired int the synaptic gap Neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron If successfully transmitted the neurotransmitter is taken up by the post synaptic neuron. The message will continue to be passed this way via electrical impulses. This will have an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the post synaptic neuron

Question 49

Summation

Answer 49

Excitatory neurotransmitters make psn more likely to fire Inhibitory neurotransmitters make psn less likely to fire Summation Number of epsp>ipsp= fire Number of ipsp>epsp= don’t fire

Question 50

Motor cortex

Answer 50

Back of frontal lobe Regulates movement in opposite side

Question 51

Somatosensory cortex

Answer 51

Parietal lobe Processes sensory information such as touch and taste The more sensitive the area of the body the larger the part devoted to it

Question 52

Auditory cortex

Answer 52

Temporal lobe Involved in analysis of speech and sound based info

Question 53

Visual cortex

Answer 53

Back of occipital lobe Receives and processes visual information

Question 54

Broca area

Answer 54

Left frontal lobe Responsible for speech production Damage can cause brocas aphasia which is characterised by slow laborious speech

Question 55

Wernickes area

Answer 55

Left temporal lobe Responsible for comprehension of language Damage to this area leads to wernickes aphasia which is characterised by producing meaningless sentences

Question 56

Localisation of function

Answer 56

Different areas of the brain are responsible for different things

Question 57

Localisation of function eval

Answer 57

Peterson et al used brain scans to demonstrate how werenickes area was active during a listening task Maguire et al mri scans of London taxi drivers found increased grey matter in hippocampi compared to control and a correlation between time spent as a taxi driver and volume of the right postirior hippocampus - different parts have different functions in relation to language and memory Evidence against- Lashley removes various areas of the cortex in rats. The rats then learnt a maze. The area removes made no difference to learning ability . Suggests learning requires all parts of the cortex. Equipotentiality theory basic sensory and motor functions are localised but more complex higher processing is not Hollism vs reductionism

Question 58

Plasticity and functional recovery

Answer 58

Plasticity is the brains ability to physically and functionally adapt to its environment. Functional recovery is the ability of the brain to transfer functions of damaged areas of the brain to healthy parts. This is enabled through the law of equipotentality, axoginal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels and recruiting homogenous areas on the opposite side of the brain. This suggests function is not always lateralised to specific hemispheres

Question 59

Plasticity and functional recovery Eval

Answer 59

Rosenzweig and Bennett raised 2 groups of rats. One were raised in an enriched environment with toys and socialisation and the other were raised in an impoverished environment. Post mortem studies of their brains showed the enriched group has a slightly heavier cerebral cortex. Genrilasbilty - rats have diff brains to humans Practical applications- neural rehabilitation- following injury functional recovery tends to slow down and stop after a few weeks. Physical therapy is used to slmaintain rate of recovery Individual differences- brain more likely to reorganise itself in young childhood- demonstratated in hemispherictomy to treat epilepsy Scnider et al- longer in education, greater chances of disability free recovery- 40% of disability free recovery were in education for more than 16 years where as 10% were in education for under 12 years

Question 60

Split brain

Answer 60

Sperry wanted to investigate whether neural processes are associated with a particular hemisphere, known as hemispheric lateralisation. The focus of Perry’s study was to explore the effects when the 2 hemispheres are separated. Sperrys pps were 11 patents who had undergone a commissurtomy which is surgery that severs the corpus callosum. These split brain patents were compared to a control group of non epileptic non split brain patents Visual tasks- visual stimuli was present to one visual field for 0.1 seconds. The pps were asked to describe what they saw. When info was shown to the rvf the pps could describe it but when shown to the left they couldn’t insisting they didn’t see anything. However a separate visual tasks found when info was presented to the left vf they couldn’t insisting draw it with their left hand. Tactile tasks- pps put hand under a tacticistoscope so they could reach the objects but not see them. They could name what they felt with right hand but not left. Sperry demonstrated that both perception and language un each hemisphere are independent. Left hemisphere responsible for language

Question 61

Split brain Eval

Answer 61

Highly scientific-only 0.1 sec Lack of control- could be due to drugs or epilepsy Provides evidence for localisation and lateralisation Turk et al- patent who had dameged left but developed capacity to speak in the right hemisphere- leading to abliblilty to speak about info presented gi either side Lacks genraliablity- case study

Question 62

Fmri

Answer 62

Measures brain activity whilst performing a task Looks at blood flow to measure areas of activity Haemodynamic response Produces 3D images called activation maps

Question 63

Fmri Eval

Answer 63

High spatial resolution - detail by millimetres Poor temporal resolution- 5 second delay Non invasive

Question 64

EEG

Answer 64

Electrical readings of brain activities Small electrodes in scalp pick up electrical signals produced by activation of neurons By measuring characteristic wave patterns eeg can diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy

Question 65

EEG Eval

Answer 65

Poor spatial resolution- cannot distinguish signals from diff parts of the brain High temporal resolution- shows information by the millisecond- show brains response to stimulus Non invasive

Question 66

Erp

Answer 66

Measures brain waves that are triggers by particular events

Question 67

Eval erp

Answer 67

High temporal resolution- taken from eeg Non invasive Poor spatial

Question 68

Post mortem

Answer 68

Study of brain following death Likely to be of people who have rare disorders Damage to an area can help establish likely cause of the affliction a person suffered

Question 69

Post mortem eval

Answer 69

Foundation of understand the brain- broca and wernickes Invasive Cause and effect

Question 70

Circadian rhythm

Answer 70

Occurs around a 24hr period Sleep wake cycle Influence by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers Endogenous pacemaker makers include suprachismatic nucleus which detects light and the pineal gland which releases melatonin Exogenous zietgebers include light, meal times, routine and alarms Night- as light levels fall the scn detects the reduced lights and triggers the pineal gland to release melatonin Morning- as light increases the scn receives the information ind inhibits melatonin

Question 71

Circadian rhythm Eval

Answer 71

Siffre spent several extended periods in underground caves to study the effects of biological rhythms. In one study he spent 2 months underground. He found the absence of external light altered his circadian rhythm. When he returned he thought it was a month earlier than it was. His free running circadian rhythm settled down just beyond the usual 24hrs though he did continue to fall asleep on a regular schedule. Similarly, Ascoff and weaver studied a group of pps who spent 4 weeks in a ww2 bunker deprived of light. They found all pps displayed a circadian rhythm of between 24 and 25hrs. This shows we maintain a natural circadian rhythm but need exogenous zeitgebers to keep it to 24hrs. Siffres reaserch can be criticised as when siffre woke up lights were put on and when he went to sleep they went off- effects internal validity Small samples cannot be generalised bc of individual differences - Duffey et al larks- prefer waking up early and owls prefer going to bed late Practical application- shif work- reduce concentrations and heat problem

Question 72

Infradium rhythm

Answer 72

Longer than 24hrs to complete Menstrual cycle Takes approx28 days Rising levels of oestrogen cause egg release. After ovulation protein increases which causes the womb lining to thicken. If pregnancy doesn’t occur the womb lining comes away and leaves the body. Seasonal affective disorder -often known as winter blues Symptoms are often triggered by less daylight hours Symptoms include low mood disrupted sleep and appetite Lasts about a year

Question 73

Infradium rhythm eval

Answer 73

Effected bt exogenous factors- stern and McClintock studied 29 women with irregular periods. Pheromones were gathers at different stages of their cycle via a cotton pat on their armpit which they wore for 8hrs. The pads were then rubbed in the upper lip of another women. 68% of women experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to the cycle of their older doner Practical applications for sad- ssri and light therapy

Question 74

Ultradium rhythm

Answer 74

Less than 24hrs Stages of sleep Several cycles of sleep per night( each lasting about 90mins) Each stage can be characterised by distinctive brainwaves which can be seen on eeg Stage 1 and 2- beginning of sleep - waves start as alpha but slow down to theta waves. It is easy to wake up in this stage Stage 3 and 4- deep sleep characterised by slow delta waves. Breathing and pulse rates will be slow and it is difficult to wake up. REM- similar brain activity to wakefulness- associated with dreaming

Question 75

Ultradium Eval

Answer 75

Derment and kleitman monitored studies of 9 adult pps in a sleep lab. Brain activity was recorded on an eeg. REM sleep was highly correlated it’s the experience of dreaming. Brain activity varied according to how vivid dreams were and the pps woken up during dreams reported very acutely recall Ecological validity- sleep lab unfamiliar and eeg is uncomfortable could disrupt sleep patterns