Paper 3 Flashcards
(30 cards)
Top down approach
Pre established typography and work down
1970s by fbi after interviewing 36 sexually motivated serial killers and found they fell into 2 categories
Organised or disorganised
Process - data assimilation, crime scene classification, crime scene reconstruction and profile generation
Organised offender
Plans crimes
Brings own weapons
Destroys evidence
Controls victims
Victim fits type
Offender is unknown to victim
Socially and sexually competent
Intelligent
Disorganised offender
Unplanned
Improvised weapons
Leaves evidence
Random victim
Offender is likely known to victim
Socially and sexually inept
Lonley
Below average intelligence
Psychotic
Top down approach eval
Applicable to serious crimes only - serial murders- ritualistic practices such as torchere and dissection of the body
However metaka et al found when applied to buglary it lead to an increase of 85% of solved cases
Based on static and outdated models of personality- assumes offenders have behaviours that remain constant across situations - criticised for the sample of 36 killers- not want to admit to crimes or want to seem notorious- self report
Canter et al - meta analysis of 100 different murders using smallest space analysis to find correlations between criminals- clear organised criminal group but found disorganised not frequent enough to be considered a type
Classification too simple- not mutually exclusive crime scenes show combos of both types- Holmes’s et al suggests 4 types of killers- visionary, mission, hedonistic , and power and control
Bottom up
Canter 1980s uk
No pre established typography
Develops profile at crime scene and eyewitness testimonies are analysed
Includes investigative psychology and geographical profiling
Investigative psychology
Uploads details onto a data base to create a likely hypothesis of the culprits characteristics, social demographics and motivations
Emphasis on scientific methods and statistical analysis
Geographical profiling
Each offender has their own operational which can be inferred through mapping previous crimes.
This should form a circular shape where the centre is the bases and can predict locations of future crimes
Canters circle Theory suggests two models of offender behaviour
The marauder who operates in close proximity to their home base and the commuter who has traveled away from their usual residence
Bottom up approach Eval
Canter and heritage used the smallest space analysis to analyse 66 sexual assult cases, the nature of the offence was correlated with particular types of behaviour (such as the use of impersonal language). This suggests that statistical techniques can be useful in identifying behaviour patterns, so supporting investigative psychology.
Evidence for geographical profiling- canter and lundrigan collected information on 120 different murder cases. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial constancey. Each body disposal site created a centre of gravity presumably because offenders start from their home base and go to a different direction each time which creates a circular effect round the home base.
Geographical information is insufficient- geo profiling may be reliant on the quality of data provided- 75% of crimes aren’t reported to the police. This questions the utility of an approach that relies on accuracy of geographical data. Also other factors are argued to be just as important such as timing and age and experience of offender.- geographical information alone may not lead tk capture of an offender
Gary Copson- 48 police departments and found advice provided by the profile was useful in 83% of casses which suggests it’s a valid investigative tool. Covered in the same study only 3% of cases did it lead to an accurate identification of the offender.
Atavistic form theory
1876 lombroso wrote a book in which he suggested criminals were genetic throwbacks and were biologically different from non criminals.
He said they were lacking evolutionary development and their untamed nature ment they can’t adjust to the demands of a civilised society turning them to crime. He saw offending behaviour as a natural tendency rooting in genes of offences. This is called the atavistic form which is identified by physical features such as narrow sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw , daej skin and facial asymmetry. Also different offenders had different characteristics such as murderes having blood shot eyes and fruadshers having reedy lips.
Lombroso examined facial characteristics of 383 dead and 3838 living convicts. 49% had atavistic characteristics
Atavistic form eval
Can bee seen as the father of criminology- shifted crime away from a moralistic discourse towards a more credible and scientific position. Lombroso theory helped the beginning of offender profiling.
Delisi questioned whether lombroso legacy was entirely positive. Attention has been drawn to racist undertones of lombrosos works as many of the atavistic features ( such as dark skin) are more likey to be found among people with African decent. This suggests his theory may have been influenced by trying to justify the eugenics movement.
Goring set out to establish whether there were physical or mental abnormalities among offenders. After a comparison between 5000 criminals and 3000 non criminals, there was no evidence to suggest offenders were a distinct group of people with unusual facial or cranial characteristics.
Lombroso failed to control variables in his reaserch- no control group. Doesn’t meat modern scientific research
Over emphasis on nature- facial and cranial characteristics may be influenced by poverty which can also be argued to cause crime.
Genetic explanations of offending
Genes predispose criminals to offending behaviour. It may be that some underlying genetic abnormality is causeing structural and functional differences in the criminal brain.
MAOA gene- regulates monomene neurotransmitters in the brain and low activity versions can be linked to aggressive behaviour
CDH13 has been linked to substance abuse and ADHD and puts people at risk of affecting behaviour due to the gene being linked to thrill seeking behaviour.
Genetic explanation of offending Eval
Christiansen studied cincordance rates for criminal behaviour in 87 MZ twins and 147 dz twins. Concordance rates were 33% for mz and 12% for dz.
however this assumes the twins are in equal environments. This shares eniroment assumption may apply more to mz twins than dz twins because they look identical and treat them more similarly. This suggests high concordance rates could be due to mz twins being treated more similarly than dz suggesting an environmental influence
Supporting evidence for diathisis stress model- mednick et al stocked 13000 danish adoptees. They found that when neither the bio parent aor adoptive parent have had convictions, percentage of adoptees which did was 13.5%. This rose to 20% when the bio parents had convictions and 24.5% when both adoptive and bio had convictions. This suggests both genes and the environment played a role in offending behaviour.
Neural explanations of offending
The prefrontal cortex regulates impulse control and emotional behaviour and it has been found that people with apd, a condition common in convicted offenders, had reduced activity in that area
The amydala controls fear, aggression and social interactions. People with abnormal amygdala la show increased aggression and lack of a fear of consequences which leads to criminal behaviour.
Neural explanations of offending eval
Raine et al - 41 murderes who plead not guilty by insanity. Their brain activity was compared to an age and gender matched control group. They formed the offender group had reduced activityin their prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum. Additionally there weed abnormalities in the limbic system including the amygdala
Correlational- cannot warbird cause and effect
Charles Whitman killed 17 people after complaining about irrational thoughts to his doctor. He requested an autopsy on his brain in his suicide note. They found a turn or pressing on his amydala which could explain his irrational behaviour.
Eysenks theory of the criminal personality
Personality can be mesured across extroversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability and psychotic. He said these traits are biological and depend on the nervous system we inherit. Criminal personality is measured by the so and they would score highly in extraversion neuroticism and psychotic
High extraversion is characterised by people who seek excitement and risky behaviours therefore more likely to take part in dangerous activities like crime
High neuroticism is characterised by being jumpy, unpredictable and impulsive
High psychoticism is characterised by being cold emotional and lacks empathy
Criminal behaviour is also linked to socialisation- children are taught to delay gratification and become more socially oriented through conditioning. When children’s act immaturely they would be punished creating an association between antisocial behaviour and anxiety.
People with high extraversion and neurotic scores have a nervous system which made them hard to condition. As a result they wouldn’t respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety which makes them more likely to participate in criminal behaviour
Eysenk Eval
Eysneck and eysenk compared 2070 male prisoner scores on the episode with 2422 controls. They found that measures of extraversion psychotism and neuroticism were higher across all ages in criminal compared to the controls. However the researchers was with closed questionnaires with 2 responses. This forces the pps to choose an option they don’t feel strongly about
Farrington et al conducted a meta analysis and reviewed studies of their relationship between high n,e and p with criminal convictions. They found the majority of cases the offenders scored highly on psychotism but not on extroversion or neuroticism. Eysenk criminal personality needed a high score in all 3- could be due to other factors such as low activity in pf cortex
Cultural factors - Bartol and Holenchock studied Hispanic and African American inmates in a maximum security prison in New York. The offenders were divided into 6 groups based on their offending history and nature of offending. They found all 6 groups had a lowered extraversion score than an non criminal control group- limits generalisability
Only one personality type- moffit proposed diff types of offender on what type of crimes are carried out- white collar crimes do not need high extraversion due to it not being exciting.
Kohlburgs moral reasoning
Kohlburgs theory of moral reasoning
Our attitudes regarding issues of right and wrong can be summarised by a series of stages. The higher the stage the more sophisticated the reasoning.
1 pre conventional morality- concerned with punishment and personal gain
2 conventional morality- concerned with approval from others, law and conformity
3 post conventional morality- concerned with the rights of others and ethical principals
Criminals show a Lower level of moral reasoning than non criminals. People with a pre conventional morality are more likely go commit crime if they think they can get away with it or gain rewards in ten down if money or respect
Cognitive distortions
Cognitive distortions
These are faulty and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately. This can affect how criminals interpret their behaviour and justify their actions.
Hostile attribution bias- judging ambiguous situations or the actions of others as threatening. Offender may misread non aggressive cues and this may trigger a violent response.
Minimalistion
This is an attempt to downplay if minimalism the seriousness of an event. This is a common strategy for dealing with feelings of guilt. Studies have found that sex offenders are particularly prone to minimalisation. For example 54% of convicted rapists denied they committed an offence and a further 40% minimised the harm the caused.
Cognitive explanations of offending Eval
Palmer and hollin compared female non offenders, male non offenders and convicted offenders using 11 moral dilemma related questions. The delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non delinquent groups
However. Thornton and Reed found that people who committed an offence for financial gain were more likely to show pre conventional morality than people who committed impulsive crime such as assult where moral reasoning may not be evident- level of moral reasoning depends on the crime
Gender bias- Kohlburgs developed these stages with teenage boys. He suggested these stages were universal and represented both males and females, emthasising a beta bias within his research. Additionally his reasearch is Androcentric as he later carried out his research with female pps and found women reach lower levels of moral reasoning than men even though crime statistics show women are less likely to commit crime.
Schonenburg and Justye presented 55 violent offender with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compare too a control group the offenders were significantly more likely to perceive them a hostile.
Lead to cbt as a treatment to sexual offenders- encourages them to face up to what they have done.
Differential association theory
Sutherland suggests criminal behaviour is learnt emphasising the role of nurture.
Social learning theory of criminal behaviour
Offending behaviour is squired through the process of learning. The learning most often occurs through interactions with significant others such as family and friends. If the individual experiences repeated attitudes which are positively associated with crime, rather than negatively , they are more likely to engage in criminal acts. If the number of pro criminal attitudes outweighs the number of anti criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend. The types of crime the person goes on to commit depend on the precise nature of the deviant attitudes they have learned. The would be offended may also learn techniques for committing crime from them such as how to steal a car.
Differential association theory Eval
Farrington et al did a longitudinal study looking at offending behaviour in 411 males from the age 8 to 50. 41% were convicted of at least one offence between the ages of 10-50. The most important risk factors were family criminality, poverty and poor parenting, suggesting pro criminal attitudes are from parents.
However, this could suggest that criminal behaviour is passes down through genes
This theory accounts for all sectors of society- burgulary more common amongst working class and corporate crime more common across middle class groups
Overemphasis on nurture- doesn’t explain why some people commit crime even when they aren’t exposed to criminal behaviour.
Psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour
Blackburn inadequate superego
Based on frueds theory that the personality is made up of 3 components id ego superego.
The superego is last to develop at the end of the phallic stage. Develops by resolving electra or Oedipus complex by identifying with their same sec parents and internalising their values and belief.
Blackburn argued if the superego doesn’t fully develop, criminal behaviour may occur as the id has free reign.
Weak super ego - absent same sex parent- not fully formed super ego- lacks morality
Deviant super ego- same sex parent has criminal values- they internalise these values- doesn’t associate guilt with wrong doing
Overharsh super ego- child is punish by strict parenting- feel the need to get in trouble
Bowlby maternal deprivation
If attachment is not formed during the critical period, the child will suffer from irreversible long term damage to emotional and intellectual development. This leads to affection less psychopathy which is the inability to feel guilt or empathy. This can lead to criming acts.
Psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour Eval
Goreta conducted a Freudian style analysis of 10 offenders referred to psychiatric treatment. In all those observed, disturbances in super ego was diagnosed.
However this reaserch can be critisised because of the small sample, no control group and it not being observed because it is in the unconscious. This makes it lack scientific credibility and unfalsifiable.
May be to do with genes instead of superego
Bowlby 44 thieves- 14/44 were affectioless psychopaths.
Lewis 500 young people - no association between separation from mother and criminal behaviour may occur
Aims of custodial sentencing
Deterrence
Retribution
Incapitation
Rehabilitation
