Perception and Pattern Recognition Flashcards
1
Q
Who proposed the Modal Model in 1981?
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin
2
Q
What is the Modal Model?
A
The Modal Model is the standard meta-theory that cognitive psychologists use to talk about the human mind. It consists of several types of memory and specifies how information is passed among them.
3
Q
What are the several types of memory?
A
Sensory
Short-term
Long-term
4
Q
What is sensory memory composed of?
A
Sensory memory consists of several registers, one for each sensory modality.
5
Q
What are the 2 modalities for sensory memory?
A
Iconic memory: visual
Echoic memory: auditory
6
Q
What is the duration of iconic memory?
A
250 milliseconds
7
Q
What is the duration of echoic memory?
A
2-4 seconds
8
Q
What is short-term memory?
A
Short term memory is related to consciousness, immediate awareness and attention. It uses control processes to manipulate information.
9
Q
What are the control processes used in short-term memory to manipulate info?
A
Encoding
Retrieval
Operators
10
Q
What is encoding?
A
Transferring info from short-term memory into long-term memory.
11
Q
What is retrieval?
A
Transferring info from long-term memory back into short-term memory.
12
Q
What are operators?
A
All the mental actions or routines that are necessary to perform even simple tasks (e.g. rehearsing a telephone number).
13
Q
What is the capacity of short-term memory?
A
Very limited (e.g. number of digits on a telephone number).
14
Q
What are several alternative names for ST memory?
A
Primary memory
Short-term store
Working memory
15
Q
What is long-term memory?
A
Long-term memory is the repository of all our past experiences.
16
Q
What are the several subtypes of long-term memory?
A
Declarative
Episodic
Semantic
Procedural
17
Q
What is declarative long-term memory?
A
Memory about something that can be consciously re-experienced and talked about.
18
Q
What is episodic long-term memory?
A
Personal experiences, autobiographical events.
19
Q
What is semantic long-term memory?
A
Encyclopaedic or factual, conceptual knowledge; including lexical knowledge (e.g. knowledge of words, spellings and pronunciations.)
20
Q
What is procedural long-term memory?
A
Memory about how we do something, often difficult to describe verbally and thus also called Motor Memory.
21
Q
Who first studied iconic memory in 1960?
A
Sperling
22
Q
What were Sperling’s 2 theoretical questions in his study of iconic memory?
A
- How much info is held in iconic memory?
2. How long does an icon persist?
23
Q
What was the method and logic used in Sperling’s study of iconic memory?
A
Tachistoscopic presentation of 3 X 4 letter trays, used to expose eye to objects for very brief duration of time.
Subjects were instructed to report as many letters as possible in 2 conditions. Retention interval between array and cue was varied (0-5 seconds).
24
Q
What were the 2 conditions participants were assigned in Sperling’s iconic memory experiment?
A
- Whole report: report as many letters as possible, in any order.
- Partial report: report as many letters as possible from a particular (cued) row.
25
What were the results for the Whole Report group in Sperling's iconic memory experiment?
Participants could recall 4-5 letters out of 12.
37% of information = memory span.
Errors reflected verbal (not visual) similarity. (E.g. B + V, not E + F)
26
What were the results for the Partial Report group in Sperling's iconic memory experiment?
Participants could recall 3 out of 4 letters (75% of info).
| Span of apprehension across whole grid was 9 items (76%).
27
What did Sperling discover about Gap Timing in his iconic memory experiment?
As the gap between the end of the stimuli and tone increased, the span of apprehension decreased back to the same level as the whole report condition.
28
What were the conclusions of Sperling's iconic memory experiment?
On average, participants were able to recall ___ of the letters on a cued row. Since the participants didn't know which row was going to be called beforehand, but still managed to ____ __ ____, we can assume that at one time __ the _________ was held in the _______ _____. But it _______ very _____.
On average, participants were able to recall 80% of the letters on a cued row. Since the participants didn't know which row was going to be called beforehand, but still managed to recall it well, we can assume that at one time all the information was held in the sensory memory. But it decayed very rapidly.
29
Summarise the findings of Sperling's iconic memory experiment in one sentence.
Sensory memory stores are large, but decay very rapidly, lasting 250-500 milliseconds.
30
Who sought to explain how information is lost from iconic memory in 1961?
Averbach back and Coriell
31
What were the 2 theoretical questions asked by Averbach and Coriell in their iconic memory experiment?
1. How is information lost from iconic memory?
| 2. Does the information passively decay, or is it overwritten (masked) by new visual info?
32
What is decay?
Passive degradation of information over time (e.g. a photograph fading in bright sunlight.)
33
What is masking?
New information actively interfering with old information (e.g. an image in a digital camera replacing an older image).
34
What was the method and logic used in Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
Used the same basic procedure as Sperling's (1960) study. However, rather than using a whole vs. partial report, subjects reported cued letters.
35
What were the 2 types of cued letters used in Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
1. Underscore: shouldn't mask the iconic image of a letter.
| 2. Circle and hash # mark: should mask the iconic image of a letter.
36
How was the underscore cue presented in Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
Participants were presented with a visual display of 2 X 8 letter rows for 50 milliseconds. The visual bar was placed above or below a letters position simultaneously with an array offset.
37
How was the circle and hashmark # cue presented in Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
The circle was presented before the visual stimulus onset or simultaneously with the stimulus offset. Recall found that matched that found when using a bar or tone.
However, if a circle was used as a cue 100 milliseconds after the stimulus offset, there was decreased accuracy in recall. As the delay of circle presentation increased, accuracy once again improved.
38
What were the results for the 2 conditions in Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
Underscore condition:
similar to Sperling's (1960) partial report condition. Accuracy of 65% when asked to recall a designated letter.
Circle cue and hashmark # condition:
very poor performance, circle cue masked perception of the letter.
39
What was the main conclusion of Averbach and Coriell's iconic memory experiment?
Meta-contrast masking or backward masking: a later visual stimulus interferes with the previous one.
40
Who studied echoic memory in 1972?
Darwin, Turvey and Crowder.
41
What were the 2 theoretical questions of Darwin, Turvey and Crowder's echoic memory experiment?
1. How much auditory info is maintained in echoic memory?
| 2. How long is echoic memory maintained?
42
What was the method and logic of Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
Used an auditory analogue of Sperling's (1960) experiment, using a '3 eared man' procedure.
43
What was the 3 eared man procedure in Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
3 simultaneous auditory signals were play to the subject, who then had to recall as many of the 9 stimuli as possible.
Left ear only
Right ear only
Both ears (sounds like coming from centre of head)
44
How was a partial report condition created in Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
To create a partial report condition, subjects were given a visual cue following the auditory signal, which would direct them to report only items from left, right or centre audio tracks. This retention interval varied from 0-4 seconds.
45
What were the results for the Whole Report condition in Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
4 out of 9 items were recalled (44%)
46
What were the results for the Partial Report condition in Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
5 out of 9 items were recalled.
When the visual cue was given immediately after the auditory signal, proper recall rose above 50%.
The partial report advantage was still present with a 4 second delay between the auditory signal and visual cue.
47
What was the 2 main conclusions of Darwin, Turvey and Crowders echoic memory experiment?
1. Echoic memory lasts for at least 4 seconds.
| 2. The simpler the stimuli, the longer the echoic trace lasts.
48
Who studied echoic memory in 1979?
Crowder and Morton
49
What was the theoretical question asked by Crowder and Morton in their echoic memory experiment?
Does echoic memory decay or is it overwritten by subsequent auditory info?
50
What was the method and logic used in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
9 digits displayed visually, at a rate of 500 milliseconds per digit under 3 conditions. After the last digit, subjects heard a cue (tone vs. the word "zero"_ to start recalling digits.
51
What were the 3 conditions used in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
Silent reading
Active vocalisation
Passive vocalisation
52
What was the silent reading condition in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
Subjects were required to read digits silently as they appear on the screen.
53
What was the active vocalisation condition in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
Subjects were required to say the digits aloud as they appeared on the screen.
54
What was the passive vocalisation condition in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
An audio tape said the digits aloud as they appear on the screen.
55
What were the results for the 3 conditions in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
Active and passive vocalising conditions:
recall of 9th item was almost perfect.
Silent reading condition:
only 60%.
Crowder and Morton called this the Modality Effect.
56
What is the Modality Effect in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
The Modality Effect is superior recall of the last few digits when they are presented in auditory modality.
57
What is the Suffix Effect in Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
The Suffix Effect is inferior recall of the last few items when the cue was meaningful (i.e. the word "zero" instead of a blank tone).
58
What were the 2 main conclusions of Crowder and Morton's echoic memory experiment?
1. The existence of an auditory trace in sensory memory, called Pre-categorical Acoustical Storage (PAS).
2. The persistence of auditory traces across a short interval time.
59
What is Pre-categorical Acoustical Storage? (PAS)
The existence of an auditory trace in sensory memory.
60
What is pattern recognition?
Pattern recognition is a cognitive skill necessary for all human activity, such as speaking, navigating our environment, recognising objects and other people.
61
What are the 3 theories used to explain how we recognise visual and auditory patterns?
1. Template theory.
2. Feature-Detection theory.
3. Interactive-Activation theory.
62
What is Template Theory?
A pattern is recognised by comparing it to a set of internal (mental) templates. The template that provides the best match is assumed to correspond to the pattern being identified.
63
What is the advantage of Template Theory?
Very simple.
64
What are the 3 disadvantages of Template Theory?
1. Problem of invariance: doesn't explain how variations in patterns are recognised, such as different handwriting styles.
2. Very slow: each pattern would have to be compared to an extremely large set of templates.
3. Not economical: a separate template would have to be stored in LTM for each possible pattern variant.
65
What is Feature-Detection Theory?
A pattern is recognised by first breaking it down into its simpler components. These features are then compared to feature sets stored in memory.
66
What are the 4 advantages of Feature-Detection Theory?
1. Fast: features can be compared to feature sets in parallel.
2. Solves the invariance problem: patterns defined only by necessary features.
3. Economical: similar patterns are comprised of a single set of features.
4. Consistent with physiological evidence.
67
What is the limitation of Feature-Detection Theory?
Cannot explain context effects, such as when situational or prior knowledge biases our perception and pattern recognition.
68
What is Interactive-Activation Theory?
Both feature and word knowledge combine to provide info about the identify of letters in a word.
69
How are patterns recognised in the Interactive Activation Model?
A pattern is recognised by comparing features and combinations of features to representations held in memory.
70
In the Interactive Activation Model, what are the 3 types of representations used to influence feature and feature set recognition?
1. Interactive
2. Bottom-up (data driven)
3. Top-down (conceptually driven)
71
What are interactive representations in the Interactive Activation Model?
Active features interacting with higher level representations, which in turn interact with features of each other.
72
What are bottom-up representations in the Interactive Activation Model??
Data-driven, active features, that activate higher level representations.
73
What are top-down representations in the Interactive Activation Model?
Conceptually-driven, higher level representations that activate (bias) feature representations.
74
What is the 5 advantages of Interactive-Activation Theory?
1. Fast: features can be compared to feature sets in parallel.
2. Solves the invariance problem: patterns defined only by necessary features.
3. Economical: similar patterns are comprised of a single set of features.
4. Consistent with physiological evidence.
5. Can account for context effects, overcoming the limitation of Feature-Detection Theory!
75
What are the limitations of Interactive-Activation Theory?
None! E.g. Selfridge's (1959) Pandemonium Model.
76
Who studied auditory pattern recognition in 1964?
Pollack and Picket
77
What did Pollack and Pickett hypothesise in their experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Linguistic context of spoken words facilitates their perception.
78
What was the method used in Pollack and Pickett's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Recorded conversations, spliced out target words from recordings and played those words in context vs. in isolation.
Subjects had to identify (i.e. repeat back) the target words.
79
What were the results of Pollack and Pickett's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Accuracy was affected by condition.
80
What were the findings for the Context condition in Pollack and Pickett's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
In conversation, accuracy was 100%
81
What were the findings for the Isolation condition in Pollack and Pickett's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
In isolation, accuracy was 50%
82
What were the 2 main conclusions of Pollack and Pickett's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
1. The longer the segment of speech from a convo played, the more intelligible each word became.
2. Speech analysis is both bottom-up and top-down: conceptual knowledge helps to identify basic phonetic sounds.
83
Who studied auditory pattern recognition in 1970?
Warren and Warren
84
What did Warren and Warren hypothesise in their experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Sentence context can influence perception of words already being maintained by echoic memory and short-term memory.
85
What was the method used in Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Subjects heard 1 of 4 sentences with a missing phoneme (the speech sounds was replaced by static). They were simply asked to repeat back what they heard.
1. It was found that the _eel was on the axle.
2. It was found that the _eel was on the shoe.
3. It was found that the _eel was on the orange.
4. It was found that the _eel was on the table.
86
What were the results of Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Phonemic restoration occurred: the target words in the sentences were heard as being:
1. 1. It was found that the WHeel was on the axle.
2. It was found that the Heel was on the shoe.
3. It was found that the Peel was on the orange.
4. It was found that the Meal was on the table.
87
What was the conclusion of Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
Phonemic restoration effect is a perceptual phenomenon, where under certain conditions, sounds missing from a speech signal can be restored by the brain and appear to be heard.
88
What are the two main theories for how phonemic restoration words in Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition?
1. Phonemic restoration uses the sensory system.
| 2. Phonemic restoration uses cognitive representations of a world and incorporates the bias effect.
89
Explain how phonemic restoration uses the sensory system in Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition.
The interaction between the top-down and bottom-up processing affect how the word is processed, through the sensitivity effect. The acoustic info of a sound is affected by the context in which is is perceived.
90
Explain how phonemic restoration uses the cognitive representation of a word and bias effect in Warren and Warren's experiment on auditory pattern recognition.
In the boas effect, the top-down and bottom-up are combined, but do not interact with another. The output from the bottom-up processing system is biased by what a person is expecting via top-down processing.
