Biological: Physiological/Behavioral Neuroscience Flashcards
You will be able to describe how the brain and nervous system regulate behavior, emotion, cognition, and consciousness through neural, hormonal, and comparative biological processes. (284 cards)
1
Q
What is neuroanatomy?
A
It relates to the parts and functions of individual nerve cells, known as neurons.
2
Q
What is a neuron?
A
A specialized cell in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals.
3
Q
Name the parts of a neuron.
A
- dendrites
- cell body/soma
- axon hillock
- axon
- myelin sheath
- nodes of Ranvier
- terminal buttons
- neurotransmitters
- synapse/synaptic cleft
4
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
dendrite
A
These are branch-like arms attached to the cell body that receive information from other neurons.
5
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
cell body/soma
A
It is the “brain” of the neuron, making up gray matter, and containing the nucleus.
6
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
axon hillock
A
It connects the cell body to the axon.
7
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
axon
A
These are tube-like structures that transmit information (via electrical impulse) from the cell body to the terminal buttons.
8
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
myelin sheath
A
The fatty layer around some axons that insulates the electric impulse and allows information to travel faster from the cell body to the terminal buttons.
The myelin sheath also acts as insulation so that signals don’t travel to every adjacent neuron, but just to the intended neuron(s).
9
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
terminal buttons
A
It is where information from the axon ends up, and contain neurotransmitters.
10
Q
What are synonyms for “terminal buttons”?
A
- end buttons
- synaptic knobs
- axon terminals
- terminal branches of axons
11
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
neurotransmitters
A
These are chemicals in the axon terminals that attempt to communicate with dendrites on other neurons.
Neurotransmitters must “fit” with dendritic receptor sites, like a key in a lock, to continue to the next neuron.
12
Q
Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
synapse
A
It is also called the synaptic cleft, is the gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the information-seeking dendrite of the next neuron.
The end of the first neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the beginning of the next neuron is the postsynaptic cell.
13
Q
True or false:
Chemicals travel within the cells, but are transmitted to other neurons electrically.
A
False
Within the cells, information is transmitted as an electric signal, but when it reaches the axon terminal, it is converted into chemicals that move between one neuron and the next.
14
Q
Can a neuron fire at different magnitudes?
A
No, a neuron will fire completely if it reaches or exceeds the depolarization threshold, or not at all, which is called the all-or-none principle.
15
Q
How is an action potential (or nerve impulse) created?
A
Positively or negatively charged chemical signals enter the dendrite and move to the cell body, which is slightly negatively charged. If these chemical signals depolarize the cell body enough, an action potential will occur, which will fire electrical information down the axon to the axon terminal.
16
Q
Fill in the blanks:
Some __________ are excitatory, prodding the cell body to fire, and others are __________, which prevent the creation of a cell’s action potential.
A
neurotransmitters; inhibitory
17
Q
Describe the path of information within a neuron from beginning to end.
A
Dendrite (chemical signals) ⇒ cell body (become electrical signals) ⇒ axon ⇒ axon terminal (become chemical signals) ⇒ synapse ⇒ dendrite of next neuron
18
Q
Fill in the blanks:
When neurotransmitters from the axon terminal are released, they attempt to connect with __________ _____ on the postsynaptic dendrite.
A
receptor sites
19
Q
Define:
threshold
A
It is the level of depolarization a cell body must reach to produce an action potential.
20
Q
What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much/too little of it?
acetylcholine
A
- Function: motor movement
- Problem: Alzheimer’s disease linked to acetylcholine deficit
21
Q
What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much/too little of it?
endorphins
A
- Function: pleasure and pain control
- Problem: endorphins are released when pleasure areas of the brain are stimulated, so addictions are linked to endorphins
22
Q
What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much/too little of it?
dopamine
A
- Function: motor movement and alertness
- Problems: Parkinson’s disease (dopamine deficiency) and schizophrenia (excessive dopamine), linked to addiction
Dopamine is a monoamine, and part of the catecholamine class.
23
Q
What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much/too little of it?
serotonin
A
- Function: mood control
- Problem: deficiency linked to clinical depression
Serotonin is a monoamine, and part of the indolamine class.
24
Q
What is the difference between afferent and efferent neurons?
A
- Afferent neurons, or sensory neurons, carry information to the brain.
- Efferent neurons, or motor neurons, carry information from the brain to the body.
25
What are the **subdivisions** of the nervous system?
* central nervous system
* brain and spinal cord
* peripheral nervous system
* somatic
* autonomic
* sympathetic
* parasympathetic
26
What is the **difference** between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system?
* The **central nervous system** includes the nerves in bones.
* The **peripheral nervous system** includes the nerves not encased in bone.
27
When you want to answer a question in class, what part of the nervous system controls your ability to raise your hand?
The **somatic** nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.
28
When your stomach begins to growl before lunch, what part of the nervous system is activated?
The **autonomic** nervous system is activated, which controls the parts of our bodies that work automatically, like heart beats, breathing, and digestive muscles.
29
What does the **sympathetic** nervous system do?
Like the gas pedal in a car, the sympathetic nervous system **accelerates** functions needed for **responding quickly** to stress, like breathing, heart rate, and pupil dilation, and slows functions not immediately necessary, like digestion.
30
What is the function of the **parasympathetic** nervous system?
It is like the brake pedal of a car, **counteracting** the sympathetic nervous system after stress has passed. It is also active during periods of "sex, sleep, and sustenance."
31
How did Phineas Gage contribute to the field of psychology?
Phineas Gage received frontal lobe damage after an accident, and his personality changed dramatically. This helped researchers conclude that the **damaged part** of the brain is an area where **emotion regulation** is controlled.
32
What are ways in which psychologists study the functions of different brain areas?
* accidents
* lesions
* electroencephalogram (EEG)
* Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT)
* Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
* Positron Emisson Tomography (PET)
* Functional MRI (fMRI)
33
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
lesions
When brain lesions happen through **damage** or as a byproduct of a **surgical procedure** (to stop seizures, for example), psychologists are able to see what functions are **impaired** in a real world setting and glean the way the damaged area of the brain works.
34
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
electroencephalogram
| (EEG)
Used largely in sleep research, the electroencephalogram (EEG) **detects brain waves** during different states of consciousness.
35
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
Computerized Axial Tomography
| (CAT or CT)
This method can get a **three-dimensional** X-ray image of the brain, which is helpful for **detecting structural problems**, like tumors, but does not aid in detecting brain activity.
36
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
| (MRI)
Similar to a CAT scan, an MRI provides an **image of the brain**, rather than clues to its activation. Unlike a CAT scan, however, the MRI uses **magnetic fields** to image brain density and does not expose the patient to potentially harmful radiation.
37
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
Positron Emission Tomography
| (PET)
The PET allows psychologists to see **activity in the brain** by monitoring how much of a **chemical** different parts of the brain are using.
38
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
Functional MRI
The fMRI is able to see **blood flow** in the brain during cognitive tasks, which suggests **brain functioning**. It also contains elements of the MRI, which gives structural information about the patient's brain.
39
What parts of the brain are located in the hindbrain?
* myelencephalon (medulla)
* metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
* base of reticular formation
40
# Describe the part of the brain:
myelencephalon/medulla
The medulla (or medulla oblongata) **connects** the brain to the spinal cord. One of the most primitive parts of the brain, it helps **control basic functions of life**, like respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.
41
# Describe the part of the brain:
pons
The pons **connects** the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, and helps control **facial expression**.
42
# Describe the part of the brain:
cerebellum
Meaning "little brain," the cerebellum looks like a second, smaller brain on the underside of our brain. It is partially responsible for our **mind-body connection**, particularly in habitual muscle movements.
43
# Describe the part of the brain:
reticular formation
Located in the midbrain, the reticular formation controls **bodily arousal** and our ability to **focus**.
The reticular formation is believed to be the **oldest** part of the brain.
44
Where are the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus located in the brain?
the forebrain
45
What are the parts of the brain known as the **limbic system**, and what function does the limbic system serve?
1. thalamus
2. hypothalamus
3. hippocampus
4. amygdala
5. septal area
The limbic system is involved in "fight, flight, feeding, and fornication."
46
# Describe the part of the brain:
thalamus
Known as the "sensory way station" of the brain, it **receives information** from the spinal cord and routes it to the appropriate part of the forebrain for further processing.
47
# Describe the part of the brain:
hypothalamus
It controls the **endocrine system**, as well as **metabolic** functions like libido, body temperature, hunger, and thirst.
48
# Describe the part of the brain:
hippocampus
It is responsible for **converting** short-term memories to long-term memories.
49
# Describe the part of the brain:
amygdala
It controls emotion and fear.
50
Why are our brains **wrinkled**?
The surface of the brain is covered with neurons, and wrinkles (or fissures) increase the surface area so more neurons can **connect** with one another to **transmit more information**.
51
If you want to kick a soccer ball with your right foot, which hemisphere of the brain controls this, and what principle explains it?
The left hemisphere controls the motor function on the right half of the body and vice versa. This is called **contralateral control**.
52
# Fill in the blanks:
Split-brain patients have had their \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ severed, usually to treat epilepsy. What two doctors pioneered this surgical procedure?
corpus callosum
## Footnote
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga pioneered this procedure.
53
# Describe the part of the brain:
corpus callosum
It is the **nerve bundle** that runs through the middle of the brain, connecting the hemispheres.
54
It has been suggested that the right hemisphere of the brain is active during spatial and creative tasks, while the left is activated during logic, spoken language, and sequential tasks.
What are the two terms used to describe the differences between the right and left hemispheres?
1. brain lateralization
2. hemispheric specialization
55
Name the four lobes in the brain.
1. frontal
2. parietal
3. occipital
4. temporal
56
What is the area in the anterior frontal lobe called, and what is it responsible for?
The **prefrontal cortex**, and it is the brain's executive functioning center. It is the part of the brain that is believed to be responsible for reasoning and emotional control.
## Footnote
Without the prefrontal cortex (or PFC), we would not be able to make long term plans, regulate our emotions, or consider consequences.
57
What area of the brain allows us to move our muscles to produce speech?
**Broca's area**, which is located in the left frontal lobe in most right-handers
58
The **top** of the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movements in what area of the body?
feet and toes
59
The **bottom** of the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movements in what area of the body?
top of the body
60
# Fill in the blanks:
Located in the parietal lobe behind the motor cortex, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ receives touch sensations from the body.
sensory cortex
| (somato-sensory cortex)
61
Why is the area where vision is processed **counterintuitive**?
The processing of vision is located in the **occipital lobe**, which is at the very back of the brain, as far as possible from the eyes themselves. The left and right halves of the visual cortex process information from the same halves of the retinas (meaning processing is lateralized).
62
Damage to what area of the **temporal lobe** would result in an inability to understand written or spoken language?
Wernicke's area
63
What **sensory modality** is the temporal lobe responsible for processing?
hearing/audition
## Footnote
Unlike vision, hearing is not lateralized. Sound coming in one ear is processed by both hemispheres of the brain.
64
Explain brain plasticity.
As our brains develop, there are skills or functions that are more or less important to perform to each individual. Because of this, the neuronal connections in our brains **strengthen or weaken** to adapt to those needed functions, especially if there is damage to other areas of the brain.
65
Why is the endocrine system important to the field of psychology?
The endocrine system secretes hormones that are part of our psychological processes.
* The **adrenal glands** secrete adrenaline, which is necessary for the fight-or-flight response of the autonomic nervous system
* Ovaries and testes produce **testosterone and estrogen**, hormones that can help explain gender differences, which are an important part of developmental psychology
66
Who was Thomas Bouchard and why was his research important?
Thomas Bouchard was a psychologist who studied identical twins raised in different families versus twins raised in the same home. His research was important when considering the **nature/nurture** argument.
* Twins had enough similarities in personality and IQ to suggest a nature component
* Twins raised in different homes also showed enough differences to suggest that nurture (or environment) was a factor in development of personality and intelligence
67
# Explain the function of the following part of a neuron:
nodes of Ranvier
The gap between adjacent myelinated **segments** on the axon.
68
What are the parts of the mesencephalon (midbrain)?
tectum and the tegmentum
69
What is the **purpose** of the tectum?
It includes the inferior and superior colliculi, controls **vision** and **audition**.
70
What is the **purpose** of the tegmentum?
It is home to the remainder of the reticular formation and helps **control** the sensorimotor system.
71
What does **gray matter** consist of?
cell bodies and dendrites
72
What makes up **white matter** in the brain?
* myelin sheathing
* axon bundles
* nerve fibers
73
What are the **divisions** of the forebrain?
1. diencephalon
2. telencephalon
74
The posterior part of the forebrain, the diencephalon, contains what two brain parts?
the thalamus and the hypothalamus
75
The frontal portion of the forebrain, the telencephalon, contains what parts of the brain?
1. the limbic system
2. hippocampus
3. amygdala
4. cingulate gyrus
76
What connects the corticospinal tract, also known as the **pyramidal tract**?
the brain and the spine
77
What does the **pituitary** gland do?
controls the other glands within the **hormonal** and **endocrine** systems
78
What part of the brain is implicated in the direction of **attention** and **emotion**?
cingulate gyrus
79
What do the **superior colliculi** control?
The direction of **visual gaze** and direction of **visual attention** to stimuli.
80
What do the **inferior colliculi** do?
It **receives auditory information**, particularly for determining the direction and spatial location of sounds in the environment.
81
What do the dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid make up and what do they do?
These three sheets of tissue comprise the meninges, which **surround** and **protect** the brain and spinal cord.
82
How does the blood-brain barrier help protect the brain from toxic intruders?
The blood-brain barrier is a **tightly-formed group of endothelial cells** in blood vessels that makes it difficult for larger, potentially toxic molecules within the blood stream to enter the brain.
83
What are ventricles?
These are fluid-filled cavities that **prevent** the brain from **shock** by acting as a cushion.
84
What do the basal ganglia include?
* caudate nucleus
* putamen
* globus pallidus
* substantia nigra
85
What is the **function** of the basal ganglia, and what can happen when they are not working properly?
The basal ganglia help control **motor function**, so improper functioning can be linked to **Parkinson's and Huntington's** diseases.
86
What are the parts of the cerebral cortex?
* frontal lobe
* parietal lobe
* occipital lobe
* temporal lobe
* neocortex
* gyri and sulci
87
How many **layers** does the neocortex have?
six
88
What are the bumps and ridges in the brain called?
Bumps are **gyri** (singular: gyrus) and furrows or fissures are **sulci** (singular: sulcus).
89
What are the parts of the brain called that are linked with certain responses to stimuli?
cortical association areas
90
# Explain the dysfunction:
apraxia
An impairment in ability to **start and organize** voluntary movements (no muscle paralysis involved).
91
# Explain the dysfunction:
agnosia
Difficulty in **recognition** of objects.
92
# Explain the dysfunction:
aphasia
An impairment in **language** (can be impaired understanding or production).
93
# Explain the dysfunction:
alexia
An inability to **read**.
94
# Explain the dysfunction:
agraphia
An inability to write.
95
What is the **result** of Broca's aphasia?
He is able to understand language, but language production is impaired.
96
Damage to Wernicke's area creates what **deficiency**?
Wernicke's aphasia is marked by impaired language comprehension from others and production of fluent but **meaningless** speech.
97
# Explain the dysfunction:
hyperphagia
Excessive **overeating**, linked with damage to ventromedial hypothalamus.
98
Following damage to or removal of the cerebral cortex, what behavioral side effect might occur?
**Decorticate rage** (or sham rage), which is intense, but not clearly directed rage.
99
What type of tools are used to **implant electrodes** in the brains of animals?
stereotaxic instruments
100
What **floral** term is used to describe the beginnings of plasticity in children?
**"Blooming and pruning"** is the process of growing new neural connections and allowing others to die as young brains learn what is most important for their survival.
101
What holds neurotransmitters as they are transported to the synaptic cleft?
synaptic vesicles
| (synaptic vessels)
102
In order for an action potential to occur, ions must permeate what?
cell membrane
103
What is the **function** of glial cells?
These are **supporting** cells, providing nutrition, materials, and chemical signals to neurons in the brain.
104
What are the four types of **glial** cells?
1. Schwann cells
2. oligodendrocytes
3. astrocytes
4. microglia
105
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ form myelin in the central nervous system, while \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ form myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells
106
What is the **point in transduction** when the neuron is negatively charged and an action potential has not yet occurred?
resting potential
107
What allows the postsynaptic cell's ion channels to open?
Postsynaptic receptors must **recognize** the presence of neurotransmitters.
108
What are the **types** of postsynaptic potentials?
1. excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
2. inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
109
What is the **difference** between an EPSP and an IPSP?
* **Excitatory** postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) will depolarize a cell, increasing the likelihood of the cell reaching threshold and creating an action potential.
* **Inhibitory** postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) will hyperpolarize a cell, decreasing the likelihood of the cell reaching the depolarization threshold.
110
What is saltatory conduction?
Characteristic of myelinated axons, saltatory conduction is when an **action potential jumps** from one node of Ranvier to the next.
111
# Fill in the blanks:
After an action potential, a cell is unable to create another action potential during the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ period. It will then enter the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ period, where it will respond only to strong stimuli.
absolute refractory; relative refractory
112
After release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft, what happens to the unused neurotransmitter?
The excess transmitters in the synaptic cleft are then either broken down by enzymes and removed, a process called **degradation**, or are transported back into vesicles and recycled, which is referred to as **reuptake**.
113
What are the two most important **amino acids** in the brain?
glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
114
What is the **function** of glutamate?
It **activates** neurons, but can become neurotoxic in excess, causing neurons to fire too quickly.
## Footnote
Glutamate is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter.
115
What is the **function** of Gamma-aminobutyric acid?
| (GABA)
GABA is an **inhibitory** neurotransmitter, which helps balance out glutamate and allows the brain to achieve stasis.
## Footnote
It is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter.
116
What do agonists do?
Agonists act like **neurotransmitters**, binding to receptor cells, **increasing** that neurotransmitter's effect.
## Footnote
Xanax is a GABA agonist
117
What do antagonists do?
Antagonists **prevent the action** of a neurotransmitter, decreasing its effect.
## Footnote
Botox is an acetylcholine antagonist
118
# Fill in the blanks:
A fetus will develop into a male if the \_\_-\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is present.
H-Y antigen
119
# Fill in the blanks:
During puberty, males release \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and females release \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to cause genital maturation and development of secondary sex characteristics.
androgens; estrogen
120
What is the **beginning** of the menstrual cycle, occurring during puberty, referred to as?
menarche
121
The menstrual cycle is moderated by changes in which **hormone levels**?
* estriadol
* progesterone
* luteinizing hormone (LH)
* follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
122
How do the effects of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) **differ** in males and females?
* In females, LH and FSH govern **ovulation**
* In males, LH and FSH govern **sperm and testosterone production**
123
What are the principal **effects** of oxytocin?
It stimulates the **contraction of uterine** muscles during childbirth and the **release of breast milk**.
## Footnote
Oxytocin is also linked to pair bonding.
124
What are the principal **effects** of vasopressin?
It stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys and blood vessel constriction, which helps **regulate blood pressure**.
125
What signals the thyroid to release hormones?
thyroid-stimulating hormone
126
What does adrenocorticotropic hormone do?
| (ACTH)
It **controls the release** of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex hormones.
127
What **method** is used to study sleep states and patterns?
electroencephalography
| (EEG)
128
What are the two main categories of sleep?
* REM (rapid eye movement)
* non-REM (or slow-wave sleep)
129
How long does it take to get through non-REM sleep?
roughly 90 minutes
130
# Describe:
stage 0 sleep
This stage occurs before sleep, when relaxing and closing the eyes, and is characterized by frequently occurring alpha waves at low levels.
131
# Describe:
stage 1 sleep
The heart rate slowed, muscle tension reduced, irregular frequency of EEG waves, eyes roll, decreased response to stimuli, theta waves occur.
132
# Describe:
stage 2 sleep
The heart rate, body temperature, and respiration decline, sleep spindles and K complexes are present in EEG.
133
What are sleep spindles?
These are bursts of **high frequency brain waves** during stage 2 sleep.
134
What are K complexes?
Occurring during stage 2 sleep, K complexes are **sharp drops** in EEG potential.
135
# Describe:
stage 3 sleep
Sleep spindles are less common and delta waves (large amplitude, very slow waves) emerge.
## Footnote
While people in stage 1 or 2 sleep will frequently deny they were sleeping if awakened, this will not likely occur in stage 3.
136
# Describe:
stage 4 sleep
Delta waves are present at least half of the time, sleep is the **deepest**, growth hormones are secreted, and if woken up, one would be extremely groggy
137
What are characteristics of REM sleep?
* dreams occur
* beta waves (neural desynchrony) occur similar to waking states
* muscles are unresponsive and flaccid
* interspersed with non-REM sleep
* roughly 20% of total sleep
* lasts between 15 and 60 minutes
138
Who gets more REM sleep: someone who gets **plenty of sleep** each night or **sleep-deprived** graduate students?
Those who are **sleep-deprived** spend more time in REM sleep.
139
How many hours do babies sleep? How many hours do the elderly sleep (on average)?
Infants typically sleep **16 or so hours** per day.
The elderly, however, only sleep roughly **six hours** per night.
## Footnote
REM sleep decreases with age, as well. Half of babies' sleep is REM sleep, but decreases to 20-25%.
140
What are interneurons?
They are the neurons **between** other neurons, and are linked with reflexes, which are imperative for survival.
141
What allows reflexes to occur quickly instead of having to be routed through the brain?
neural networks known as **reflex arcs**.
142
# Define:
phylogeny
The study of **evolutionary** development
143
What are the **subdivisions** of the hypothalamus?
1. lateral hypothalamus
2. ventromedial hypothalamus
3. anterior hypothalamus
144
# Fill in the blanks:
The hypothalamus uses \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to regulate the balance of water in the body, a process known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
osmoreceptors; osmoregulation
145
What is the **function** of the lateral hypothalamus?
It controls hunger; lesions can result in **aphagia**, or a refusal to eat.
146
What is the **function** of the ventromedial hypothalamus?
| (VMH)
The VMH tells us when we have had enough to eat. Lesions in the VMH can lead to **hyperphagia**, or uncontrollable eating, since there is nothing to signal satiety.
147
What is the **function** of the anterior hypothalamus?
It controls sexual behavior. Lesions can lead to inhibited sexual urges and activity.
148
# Fill in the blanks:
Along with the nucleus accumbens, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a major pleasure center of the brain.
septal area (or septum)
149
What is **Klüver-Bucy** syndrome?
It is a syndrome resulting from **bilateral lesions** to the amygdala, marked by docility, hypersexuality, hyperphagia, and hyperorality.
150
What is another name for the **visual cortex**?
striate cortex
151
# Fill in the blank:
When the sensations from one side of the body communicate with the same side of the cortex, they are communicating \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
ipsilaterally
152
What are the three most abundant catecholamines in the body?
1. dopamine
2. epinephrine
3. norepinephrine
## Footnote
They are also classified as **monoamines**, and play a part in emotional processes.
153
What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?
This hypothesis states that schizophrenia is cause by an **excess of dopamine**.
However, problems with this theory include: many patients with schizophrenia have normal levels of dopamine, and antipsychotics block dopamine quickly, but psychosis doesn't go away immediately.
154
What two **mood disorders** are linked to norepinephrine imbalance?
depression and mania
155
What is the **synthetic form** of dopamine sometimes used to treat patients with Parkinson's disease?
L-dopa
156
Antidepressants like Prozac are called what?
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
| (SSRIs)
157
What is the **monoamine** theory of depression?
This theory believes that **excessive or insufficient** levels of monoamines (specifically norepinephrine) are linked with mania and depression.
158
What are peptides?
When two or more amino acids combine, they form peptides.
Important peptides to remember are **endorphins** (which serve as natural painkillers) and **enkephalins**.
159
What **behaviors** are associated with epinephrine?
Epinephrine (or adrenaline) is linked to the **fight or flight** response.
160
What are the **functions** of serotonin?
It helps **regulate** mood and eating, as well as sleep and dreaming.
161
What is another term for sedative-hypnotic drug?
depressants
162
What are some examples of **sedative-hypnotic drugs**, and what neurotransmitter do they affect?
**Alcohol, benzodiazepines** (like Valium) and **barbituates**; they enhance GABA, and are used as tranquilizers or sedatives.
163
What is Korsakoff's Syndrome?
Stemming from malnutrition in chronic alcoholics, Korsakoff's syndrome causes **anterograde amnesia**.
164
What are behavioral stimulants?
They are drugs that **reduce fatigue** or **increase motor functioning**, and are believed to increase receptors for the monoamines (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) and serotonin.
165
What are some examples of behavioral stimulants, and what are they used for?
* **amphetamines**: used for narcolepsy
* **antidepressants**: used to improve sleep patterns, increase activity, and elevate mood
* **methylphenidate** (Ritalin): used to treat attention deficit disorder
## Footnote
ADHD specialists recommend methylphenidates as the first-choice medication for treating children and adolescents, and amphetamines as the first-choice medication for adults.
166
What are the three main types of antidepressants?
1. tricyclics
2. monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
3. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
167
How do **tricyclic** antidepressants work?
They prevent the **reuptake** of norepinephrine and serotonin.
168
How do monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors work?
They prevent MAO from **breaking down** norepinephrine and serotonin.
169
What is the **purpose** of antipsychotic drugs?
Generally, they are believed to **prevent** dopamine from binding to the **postsynaptic membrane**, reducing hallucinations, agitation, and delusions.
170
What are some **disorders** that can be treated with antipsychotics?
* Schizophrenia
* Bipolar disorder
* Delusional disorder
* Psychotic depression
* Tourette's syndrome
* Dementia in the elderly
171
What **antipsychotic** is used frequently to treat bipolar disorder?
lithium
172
What are common narcotics (or opiates) and what do they do?
* opium
* heroin
* morphine
## Footnote
They are natural painkillers.
173
What is ablation?
Ablation (or extirpation) is the term for **surgically induced** brain lesions.
174
What is dementia?
A loss of cognitive functioning (including disorientation and memory failure).
175
Which three ethologists shared the Nobel prize in 1973?
1. Konrad Lorenz
2. Nikolaas Tinbergen
3. Karl von Frisch
176
# Fill in the blank:
Ethology is the study of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ behaviors.
animal
177
What did Charles Darwin believe was instrumental to **evolution**?
natural selection
178
Who was the **founder** of ethology research?
Konrad Lorenz
179
What **subjects** within ethology is Konrad Lorenz known for?
* animal aggression
* imprinting
* releasing stimuli
* fixed action patterns
180
Why did Konrad Lorenz believe animal aggression was **innate**?
He believed, based on natural selection, that aggression in animals ensured that the strongest in a species survived, passing on their genes to future generations, and was therefore **instinctual**.
181
Whom do baby birds think is their mommy?
Konrad Lorenz found that baby birds (and some other species) form an attachment to the first moving object they see after birth. This is called **imprinting**.
182
According to Konrad Lorenz (and further supported by the research of Nikolaas Tinbergen), what triggered **fixed action patterns**?
releasing stimuli (sign stimuli or simply releasers)
183
What is a fixed action pattern?
It is a **chain of behaviors** or events within a species brought on by a releasing stimuli.
184
What are the four characteristics of fixed action patterns?
1. uniformity
2. performed by most of a species
3. more complex than reflexes
4. unstoppable once they have started
185
Following Konrad Lorenz's earlier reseach, what did Nikolaas Tinbergen's research focus on?
releasing stimuli
## Footnote
Tinbergen made models and used them in natural settings to observe the behaviors of animals.
186
Briefly explain **Tinbergen's** experiment with stickelback fish and releasing stimuli.
Male stickleback fish attack each other in the spring when their bellies become red. To test that the belly color was the releasing stimulus, Tinbergen made realistic stickleback models with no red bellies and crude models with red bellies. Supporting his hypothesis, the fish attacked the red-bellied models.
187
What did Tinbergen find during his research with herring gull chicks?
Herring gull chicks pecked at their parents' red-tipped bills to get food. Crude models showed the releasing stimulus to be the color red on the bill, and pecking intensity correlated with greater contrast between the bill and the red tip.
188
What is a supernormal sign stimulus?
It is an **artificial** releasing stimulus whose effect is greater than the naturally occurring releasing stimulus.
189
Who discovered that honeybees communicate through dance?
Karl von Frisch
190
Who coined the term "fight or flight"?
Walter Cannon
191
What is the **fight or flight** response?
It is a series of physiological changes that provides an animal with the tools necessary to flee from or fight a threat.
Examples might include changes in respiration, blood flow, pupil dilation, and heart rate.
192
After the fight or flight response, what happens to the body, according to Walter Cannon?
The body self-regulates to return to **homeostasis**.
193
What is the term for a molecular unit of heredity?
gene
## Footnote
Genes are made of DNA and RNA molecules and are carried in chromosomes
194
How many chromosomes are in the nucleus of a human cell?
23 pairs
195
What are gametes and how do they **differ** from other human cells?
In humans, gametes are the **sperm and ovum**.
## Footnote
While human cells have 23 pairs of chomosomes (making them **diploids**), gametes only have 23 single chromosomes (making them **haploids**).
196
Are zygotes **haploids** or **diploids**? Why?
Diploids; when the gametes from parents meet in the fertilized egg cell, the 23 single chromosomes become paired, making the zygote a **diploid**.
197
What is a genotype?
The entirety of a genetic cell's makeup.
## Footnote
The genotype includes both dominant and recessive genes
198
What is an allele?
It is any **particular version of a gene**, including possible variations for each dominant and recessive gene (dominant-dominant, dominant-recessive, or recessive-recessive).
199
The sum of your physical characteristics is also known as what?
phenotype
200
What idea is central to the **theory of evolution**?
natural selection
201
What is natural selection?
It is the idea that organisms or species are more likely to survive if they **adapt to fit** their environment.
202
What does **genetic drift** refer to?
It refers to the **genotypic pruning** or flourishing within a population through generations.
203
What is **reproduction** and the furthering of genes called in terms of evolution?
fitness
204
Organisms or animals that are concerned with furthering the entire species rather than just themselves are favoring what?
inclusive fitness
205
The desire to **protect your own genes** (and thus, the genes of your family) is known as what?
kin selection
## Footnote
Inclusive fitness is born of kin selection.
206
What are characteristics of **innate** or **instinctual** behaviors?
* not reliant on learning or experience
* relatively consistent throughout the species, even initially
* exist in all members of a species
207
How does protecting one's kin **not** constitute altruism?
While protecting a family member is somewhat altruistic, true altruism does not generate a direct benefit for the individual. Protecting non-kin would be altruistic because it does not ensure the safety of one's own genes.
208
What is the evolutionary **purpose** of a biological clock?
Biological clocks keep an organism in step with its environment.
209
What **time period** do circadian rhythms revolve around?
one day (24 hour) cycles
210
What behaviors must occur to **attract** a member of the same species and mate?
courting
211
When a bird is unsure whether to attack a predator or flee, it will sometimes peck at the grass. Why?
The bird is exhibiting **displacement behaviors**, which are illogical and stem from different instincts contradicting one another simultaneously.
A human example is scratching one's head while trying to decide between different options.
212
What is estrus?
It is the period of time when a female animal is receptive to sex for **mating**.
This is commonly referred to as being "in heat."
213
How has evolution discouraged **inbreeding**?
Many animals from the same family have similar markings, so potential suitors know to choose mates with different markings from their own.
214
How is mimicry evolutionarily **beneficial**?
Mimicry allows one species of animal to look/sound/smell like another species to **protect** themselves from harm.
215
What is instinctive drift?
When an animal forsakes conditioned responses in favor of instinctive responses.
216
What are pheromones?
Believed to be a form of **primitive communication** between animals, pheromones are sensed by another's **vomeronasal** organ and chemically convey certain **emotions**, like fear.
217
There are four types of **reproductive isolating mechanisms**, which prevent interbreeding between different (but potentially compatible) species. What are they?
1. mechanical isolation
2. behavioral isolation
3. geographic isolation
4. isolation by season
218
What is mechanical isolation?
Two species have reproductively **incompatible genitals**.
219
What type of isolation prevents one species from responding to the courting rituals of another species, preventing interbreeding?
behavioral isolation
220
How does **geographic isolation** prevent interbreeding?
Different species breed in different physical locations so they are **unlikely to interbreed**.
221
Different but similar species breeding at **different times in the year** to prevent interbreeding is called what?
isolation by season
222
# Fill in the blanks:
While some behaviors are innate, psychologists and ethologists agree that there is a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ where an organism is receptive or vulnerable to learning.
critical period
| sensitive period
## Footnote
Ex: baby chicks imprinting on the first moving object they see upon birth, unable to reverse it later in life.
223
What is **sexual dimorphism** and what are a few examples?
Sexual dimorphism is the **phenotypic** differences between males and females of a species.
Examples:
* human females have larger breasts
* human males are typically larger and taller than women
* male peacocks have colorful plumage and females do not
* in many species of fish, the female is larger than the male
224
Though related, how do the theories of natural selection and sexual selection **differ**?
* **Natural** selection is concerned with the fight to live, to prevent death.
* **Sexual** selection is concerned with the fight to reproduce and continue the bloodline.
225
Choosing a stud horse to breed with a female horse to produce a strong racing horse is called what?
selective breeding
226
What did Karl von Frisch decode about the dance movements of bees?
* a dance with a circular motion means food is nearby
* a dance with a wiggling motion means food is far away
* the length of the dance is directly related to how far away the food is
* the intensity of the movements is related to the quality of the food
227
How do scouting bees navigate?
They use simple landmarks, magnetic fields, polarized light, and the position of the sun to navigate.
228
How does a queen bee prevent other female bees in the hive from reproducing?
She secretes a chemical to suppress their ovaries so only she lays eggs.
When a new queen bee emerges, the old queen bee leaves the hive.
229
In beehives, who mates with the queen?
Male bees called **drones** mate with the queen. Year-to-year, bees mate in the same location.
230
How do bees know which flowers to gather nectar from?
Bees can see **honeyguides** on flowers that humans can not, since they can see **ultraviolet light** invisible to humans.
231
What are different "compasses" some animals (notably birds and bees) use to navigate?
* atmospheric pressure
* infrasound
* magnetic sense
* sun compass
* star compass
* polarized light
* echolocation
232
How is atmospheric pressure an aid to navigation?
It alerts animals (like pigeons) to changes in altitude.
233
What is infrasound?
Infrasound is extremely low-frequency sound, to the point that humans are unable to hear it. However, pigeons can hear infrasounds from the earth that travel greater distances than many other sounds, aiding navigation.
234
# Fill in the blank:
Pigeons and bees are believed to sense the \_\_\_\_\_\_ forces of the earth, which aids navigation.
magnetic
235
How can celestial bodies like the sun and stars aid navigation?
These objects serve as landmarks for some birds and bees.
236
How can the sun help bees navigate on even a cloudy day?
Bees have the ability to see **polarized light**, which helps detect the position of the sun and help plot a path to their destination.
237
Describe the process of **echolocation**.
Some animals can emit high-frequency sounds that bounce off surrounding objects and create a sophisticated map of the area's obstructions and food.
Bats and dolphins are most commonly associated with echolocation.
238
Do owls use echolocation?
no
## Footnote
They use regular hearing, but their ears are asymmetrical, which allows sound entering the ears at different times to help pinpoint the location of objects.
239
What was Wolgang Köhler famous for?
His studies on **chimpanzees** and **insight learning**.
240
What is insight learning?
The **a-ha! moment** that allows a new understanding of a situation to solve a problem.
Köhler tested insight learning with chimps to see if they would find creative solutions after seeing the whole problem, instead of just using trial and error.
241
What are three major topics Harry Harlow used to study with rhesus monkeys?
1. social isolation
2. contact comfort
3. learning to learn
242
What did Harlow's studies on **social isolation** show about monkeys?
Monkeys raised in isolation were never socialized, so when they were around other monkeys, they did not act normally, particularly with sexual and maternal behaviors.
243
What did Harlow's wire monkey/cloth monkey experiment suggest about **maternal attachment**?
Baby monkeys could spend time with a wire "mother" who provided food or a terrycloth "mother" who did not provide anything but comfort. Baby monkeys ran to the cloth mom when scared, suggesting that comfort is imperative to attachment.
244
Describe Harlow's theory of "learning to learn."
As monkeys inreased their total learning experiences, they were able to learn novel things more quickly.
245
Briefly explain R.C. Tyron's **rat experiment**.
To test how behavioral differences are affected by genetics, Tryon ran rats through a **maze** and bred the ones that made the fewest mistakes to make "maze-bright" rats and the most mistakes to make "maze-dull" rats. He then tested the bright- and dull-bred rats to see if they made as few or as many mistakes as their parents. His research supported the hypothesis that **genetics affect behavior**.
246
What did Cooper and Zubek add to Tyron's rat experiment?
They raised genetically maze-bright and maze-dull rats in **different environments**: normal, enriched, and impoverished. They found a difference in maze performance only in the normal condition. In the enriched and impoverished conditions, the performance difference was not significant.
247
What are the three **prongs** of Edward Thorndike's instrumental learning theory?
1. trial
2. error
3. accidental success
248
What is Thorndike's **law of effect**?
Stemming from the concept of instrumental learning, Thorndike posited that animals **repeat successful behaviors**.
He tested this with cats in puzzle boxes. While it took the cats a while in the beginning to find the escape button, they pressed it nearly immediately in later trials.
249
How do **cross-fostering** experiments help glean whether traits are due to nature or nurture?
Siblings are separated at birth and raised by different parents, then **compared** to see what traits persisted, suggesting heredity, and which traits differed, suggesting environment.
250
What was Eric Kandel's contribution to the concept of **plasticity**?
Kandel studied the sea slug Aplysia, and showed that learning actually changed the **synapses** and **neural pathways** of the slug, supporting the idea of neural plasticity.
251
What did Keller and Marion Breland find when they tried to teach a raccoon to deposit coins in a piggy bank?
They observed the raccoon treating the coins like they would crayfish, trying to remove a shell. This showed an **instinctual drift**, meaning the raccoon couldn't help behaving instinctually.
252
Ethology now mainly rests within the realm of sociobiology. Who is the most recognized sociobiologist?
E.O. Wilson
## Footnote
Wilson believes behavior is formed by the mingling of environment and genetics.
253
What are the main types of photoreceptors in the human eye?
* Rods
* Cones
## Footnote
Rods are responsible for vision in low light conditions, while cones are responsible for color vision and function best in bright light.
254
# True or false:
Hair cells are involved in the auditory transduction mechanism.
True
## Footnote
Hair cells in the cochlea convert sound wave vibrations into electrical signals that the brain interprets as sound.
255
# Fill in the blanks:
Mechanoreceptors are primarily responsible for detecting \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_.
touch; pressure
## Footnote
Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and texture, enabling the sense of touch.
256
Describe the **function** of taste buds.
Taste buds **detect chemical substances** in food and transmit taste information to the brain.
## Footnote
Taste buds are clusters of receptor cells located on the tongue, each detecting different taste sensations such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.
257
What is the **role** of the olfactory epithelium in the sensory system?
It **houses olfactory receptors** that detect odor molecules, enabling the sense of smell.
## Footnote
The olfactory epithelium is a specialized tissue inside the nasal cavity that plays a crucial role in the detection of airborne chemical stimuli.
258
**Differentiate** between the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway and the spinothalamic pathway.
* **Dorsal column-medial lemniscal**: Carries fine touch and proprioception
* **Spinothalamic**: Transmits pain and temperature
## Footnote
These pathways are key components of the somatosensory system, conveying different types of sensory information from the body to the brain.
259
What is a **receptive field** in sensory systems?
It's the specific region of sensory space where a stimulus will **modify the firing** of a neuron.
## Footnote
Receptive fields are critical for sensory perception as they determine how neurons respond to stimuli in their environment.
260
Explain the concept of **lateral inhibition** in sensory processing.
It enhances contrast and sharpens sensory perception by **inhibiting neighboring neurons**.
## Footnote
This process helps improve the accuracy of sensory information by reducing noise and emphasizing differences in stimulus intensity.
261
What is the **main premise** of the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Emotions arise from **physiological** responses to external stimuli.
## Footnote
The James-Lange theory suggests that our experience of emotion is the result of our interpretation of bodily reactions to stimuli.
262
# True or false:
The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.
True
## Footnote
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that the brain sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system, resulting in the experience of emotion and physiological arousal at the same time.
263
According to the Schachter-Singer theory, what two factors are essential for **experiencing emotion**?
* Physiological arousal
* Cognitive labeling
## Footnote
Also known as the two-factor theory, it suggests that emotion is based on physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
264
# Fill in the blanks:
The Yerkes-Dodson law states that there is an \_\_\_\_\_ \_\_-\_\_\_ relationship between arousal and performance.
inverted U-shaped
## Footnote
Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, after which it decreases, indicating that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.
265
How does the appraisal model of emotion (Lazarus) **differ** from other theories?
It emphasizes the role of **cognitive appraisal** in emotion.
## Footnote
Lazarus's model posits that emotions are determined by an individual's assessment of a situation and the perceived significance of that situation.
266
What **role** do the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and amygdala play in emotion regulation?
* The PFC regulates emotional responses.
* The amygdala processes emotional stimuli.
## Footnote
The interaction between the PFC and amygdala is crucial for modulating emotions and controlling responses to emotional stimuli.
267
What is the **function** of the nucleus accumbens in motivation?
It is involved in the brain's reward pathway and processes pleasure and reinforcement.
## Footnote
The nucleus accumbens is a key component of the brain's reward circuit, playing a significant role in motivation, pleasure, and addiction.
268
What **brain circuits** are primarily involved in working memory?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) circuits
## Footnote
The dorsolateral PFC is crucial for the temporary storage and manipulation of information, which are key components of working memory. This region helps in tasks that require holding and processing information simultaneously.
269
# True or false:
The dorsal stream is primarily involved in processing 'where' information in visual attention.
True
## Footnote
The dorsal stream, also known as the 'where' pathway, helps in processing spatial awareness and the location of objects, while the ventral stream is responsible for identifying 'what' the objects are.
270
# Fill in the blank:
The connectivity between \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ area and Wernicke's area is crucial for language processing.
Broca's
## Footnote
Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe, is essential for speech production, while Wernicke's area, in the temporal lobe, is important for language comprehension. Their connectivity facilitates coherent language processing.
271
**Differentiate** between the hippocampal memory system and procedural memory.
* **Hippocampal memory**: Involves explicit, declarative memory, such as facts and events.
* **Procedural memory**: Involves implicit, non-declarative memory, like skills and habits.
## Footnote
The hippocampus is vital for forming new memories and is associated with conscious recollection, while procedural memory is managed by other brain areas like the basal ganglia and cerebellum and involves unconscious recall.
272
What **role** does the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) play in executive control and inhibition?
* error detection
* conflict monitoring
* adaptive control
## Footnote
The ACC helps in focusing attention, managing conflicting information, and regulating emotional responses, making it integral to cognitive control and decision-making processes.
273
Which **memory system** is primarily associated with the dorsolateral PFC?
Working memory
## Footnote
The dorsolateral PFC is responsible for maintaining and manipulating information over short periods, playing a critical role in tasks that require working memory.
274
What is the primary characteristic of a **hypnotic** state?
increased suggestibility
## Footnote
During hypnosis, individuals are more open to suggestions, which can alter perceptions, feelings, and behaviors. This state is achieved through relaxation and focused attention.
275
# True or false:
Meditation can lead to altered EEG patterns.
True
## Footnote
Meditation often results in increased alpha and theta wave activity in the brain, indicating a state of deep relaxation and focused attention, distinct from normal waking consciousness.
276
List the three main categories of psychoactive drugs.
* Stimulants
* Depressants
* Hallucinogens
## Footnote
Each category affects the central nervous system differently: stimulants increase activity, depressants decrease it, and hallucinogens alter sensory perceptions.
277
# Fill in the blank:
A person in a persistent \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ state shows no signs of awareness or response to the environment.
vegetative
## Footnote
A vegetative state is characterized by wakefulness without awareness, commonly resulting from severe brain injury. Patients may open their eyes and exhibit sleep-wake cycles but lack conscious interaction with their surroundings.
278
What is the term for environmental cues that help **regulate the circadian rhythm**?
Zeitgebers
## Footnote
Zeitgebers, such as light and temperature, help synchronize the body's internal clock to the 24-hour day. Light is the most influential zeitgeber, affecting the sleep-wake cycle and other circadian rhythms.
279
What does the **localization theory** propose about brain functions?
Specific brain areas are responsible for **specific** functions.
## Footnote
The localization theory contrasts with the equipotentiality theory, which suggests that any part of a functional area can perform tasks associated with that area. This debate impacts our understanding of brain injuries and recovery.
280
# True or false:
Neuroimaging always provides precise spatial and temporal resolution.
False
## Footnote
Neuroimaging methods, like fMRI, generally offer high spatial resolution but low temporal resolution, whereas EEG provides high temporal but low spatial resolution. Understanding these trade-offs is crucial for interpreting research findings.
281
What is a major **ethical concern** related to incidental findings in neuroimaging?
Privacy concerns
## Footnote
Incidental findings can reveal unexpected health information, raising privacy issues. These findings may require follow-up, impacting patient confidentiality and autonomy.
282
List two applications of **neuroplasticity** in rehabilitation.
* Stroke recovery
* Treatment of traumatic brain injuries
## Footnote
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections. This ability is harnessed in rehabilitation to improve function after brain injuries or neurological conditions.
283
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ can potentially restore lost sensory or motor functions.
Brain-computer interfaces
| (BCIs)
## Footnote
BCIs interpret brain signals to enable communication or control external devices, offering hope for individuals with disabilities. However, they also pose risks, such as security vulnerabilities and ethical concerns around autonomy.
284
What is one risk associated with **brain-computer interfaces**?
Security vulnerabilities
## Footnote
BCIs could be susceptible to hacking, leading to unauthorized control or data breaches. This raises ethical and technical challenges in their development and deployment.
