Social: Various Topics Flashcards
You will be able to analyze how individuals interact within social contexts, focusing on perception, attitudes, relationships, group dynamics, and cultural influences. (142 cards)
1
Q
What is social psychology?
A
It is the sect of psychology that “uses scientific methods to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.” (Allport, 1985)
2
Q
What is an attitude, and why is it so important to social psychology?
A
It is an evaluation of people, objects, or ideas. Since we can have positive or negative attitudes about nearly everything, attitudes shape our view of the world.
3
Q
According to social psychology, why do advertisers use the same commercial for the same product over and over again?
A
The mere exposure effect hypothesizes that you will like something more as you see it more, which will increase your likelihood of buying what is advertised.
4
Q
An ad with a political candidate explaining directly why he is better than his opponent is an example of what idea of social psychology?
A
central route of persuasion
5
Q
An ad featuring a beautiful model and a famous athlete using a product without saying why it is better than a competitor’s product is an example of what idea in social psychology?
A
peripheral route to persuasion
6
Q
What did Richard LaPiere’s research show about attitudes and behavior?
A
His research, which looked at the behavior toward Asians in America in the 1930s, showed that, while hotel and restaurant workers at the time overwhelmingly said they would refuse service to Asians, a very small percentage actually did. This suggests that attitude does not necessarily dictate behavior.
7
Q
What is cognitive dissonance?
A
A theory that people are motivated to reduce the differences that are psychologically uncomfortable between their own thoughts, feelings, and actions. Often this is “sour grapes” or rationalization.
8
Q
What was Festinger and Carlsmith’s experiment on cognitive dissonance?
A
Participants in a study were paid either $1 or $20 to tell a confederate that the task to complete was enjoyable when it was really quite boring. The more a participant was paid, the less they actually believed they enjoyed the task.
9
Q
What compliance strategy believes a person should ask for something small to get something bigger later?
A
The foot-in-the-door phenomemon believes that if someone agrees to giving away something small, they will be more likely to give away something larger if it is requested later.
10
Q
If you ask your parents for $50 and they say no, then you ask them for $20 and they say yes, what compliance strategy is employed?
A
The door-in-the-face strategy suggests that if you ask for something large, asking for something smaller will seem more reasonable and the request is more likely to be granted.
11
Q
Why would we be more likely to donate money to people wrapping presents for free during the holidays?
A
Norms of reciprocity are the idea that if someone does something nice for you, you should do something nice for him. So since the volunteers are wrapping presents for free for you, you think the least you could do is donate to their cause.
12
Q
Why might you choose to believe you got in a car accident because someone cut you off instead of believing it is because you were not paying attention to the other cars on the road?
A
Attribution theory addresses how we understand behaviors and the causes of events. You may attribute your accident to someone else making a poor driving decision instead of you so you won’t feel bad or guilty.
13
Q
What are the three kinds of information Harold Kelley proposed we use to make attributions?
A
- consistency: how consistent is this information over time?
- distinctiveness: how distinct is this information from the other information we have about the subject?
- consensus: how would others have responded given the same information?
14
Q
What did Rosenthal and Jacobson’s experiment, “Pygmalion in the Classroom” show about self-fulfilling prophecy?
A
A class of students was issued a standard IQ test, but the researchers told teachers it was a measure of performance potential and randomly selected several students as being more capable than others.
As a result of self-fulfilling prophecy, teachers treated these kids as capable learners, and their scores improved more than the other students’.
15
Q
What is the fundamental attribution error?
A
It is our bias to view the behavior of others in terms of dispositional characteristics (a teacher thinks a student failed a test because the student is stupid), but not considering situational reasons (the student did not study).
16
Q
If I believe everyone likes chocolate because I like chocolate, and you believe everyone likes vanilla because you like vanilla, what is being exhibited?
A
The false-consensus effect is occurring. We believe that because we feel one way about something, everyone else feels the same way about it.
17
Q
Why are we more likely to take credit for our role in a successful group presentation than an unsuccessful group presentation?
A
The self-serving bias allows us to believe that we had a greater role in something’s success than in its failure.
18
Q
What belief (suggested by M.J. Lerner) allows us to think that good things will come to good people, and bad things will ultimately befall bad people?
A
The just-world bias helps us make sense of the world by believing that it is fundamentally fair.
This also allows us to blame victims of misfortune, believing things would have been different if they had made better decisions, so they got what they deserved.
19
Q
What is a stereotype?
A
A shared belief or generalization about a group of people and can be positive or negative.
20
Q
What is a prejudice and how does it differ from a stereotype?
A
It is the negatively affective component of stereotyping, like being scared of a group of people you believe (through stereotyping) to be violent.
21
Q
What is discrimination, and how does it emerge from stereotypes and prejudices?
A
An action taken because of the prejudices that arise from stereotypes.
An example of discrimination is calling the police about a group of people loitering in an area because you believe them to be violent, even if they have done nothing wrong.
22
Q
If you believe that other cultures are odd because they are not like your own, and that your culture is superior to other cultures, you are engaging in what form of bias?
A
ethnocentrism
23
Q
Why might we see members of our out-groups as all being the same?
A
We have extensive experience with those who are part of our in-groups, so we see the variance therein. However, we have less experience with groups we are not part of, so we tend to see them as all being the same. This is called out-group homogeneity.
24
Q
Why might we engage in in-group bias?
A
Researchers suggest that we have a need to see ourselves as good people. If we have a social identity that we believe makes us good, we will tend to favor people in our in-groups, since we believe they must also be good (or they would be part of our out-groups).
25
When prejudice is reduced through cooperation between groups to complete a larger goal, what is this **goal** called, and what is this **belief**?
This large, shared goal is called a **superordinate goal**, and the theory of minimizing prejudice through cooperation with other groups is called **contact theory**.
26
What did Sherif's Robbers Cave study teach us about **group conflict** and **superordinate goals**?
* Kids were divided into two groups in a camp
* Both groups showed escalating hostility in competitive tasks resulting in prejudice
* This prejudice was only decreased when the two groups had to cooperate to complete a superordinate goal (like putting out a fire)
* This shows how easily in-groups form prejudices and hostility and how superordinate goals can reduce those prejudices
27
How would the **frustration-aggression** hypothesis explain a scapegoat?
This theory asserts that frustration makes us more likely to become aggressive, and when we can't vent our aggression at the source of the frustration, we act out our aggression on someone or something else (a **scapegoat**).
28
What did the murder of **Kitty Genovese** lead Darley and Latane to study?
When Genovese was murdered in view of dozens of witnesses who did nothing, Darley and Latane wanted to find out why nobody helped. This led to their research on the **bystander effect** and **diffusion of responsibility**.
29
What did **Darley and Latane** find about the bystander effect?
They found that the more people there are involved as bystanders to an emergency, the less likely each individual will be to take action to stop the emergency.
The **diffusion of responsibility** phenomenon spreads out the feeling of responsibility within a group so it is less and less concentrated with each additional witness.
30
Why are we less scared of turbulence on an airplane if the flight attendants are smiling?
**Pluralistic ignorance** is the idea that we look at those around us to decide how we should react to a situation. If we are on a bumpy flight but the flight attendants or other passengers are unaffected, we will react as though nothing is wrong.
31
What are the four **factors** involved in deciding whether you may like someone?
1. **proximity/propinquity**: do you see this person regularly?
2. **attractiveness**: is this person attractive?
3. **similarity**: is this person like you in a lot of ways?
4. **reciprocal liking**: does this person feel positively about you, too?
32
What is social facilitation?
This is when the presence of one or more observers makes someone perform better at **routine tasks**.
33
What is the **difference** between social facilitation and social impairment?
While social facilitation explains that we may improve performance on *simple or routine* tasks, **social impairment** shows that we may perform *difficult* tasks more poorly than we normally would if we were doing them without being observed.
34
What is conformity?
It is the act of **blending** into a crowd, or following along with an idea, view, or action of others.
35
Explain **Solomon Asch's** conformity study.
* Participants were asked to participate in a group vision test, measuring the length of lines
* All members of the group except the participant were confederates in the study
* Even if the confederates gave an obviously wrong answer, a significant percentage of the participants would conform to this wrong answer
36
What experimental findings explain how ordinary people may commit atrocities while following the orders of an authority figure?
Milgram's obedience study showed the following:
* Participants were told to shock another participant (actually a confederate) when they answered a question incorrectly
* More than half of the participants administered the highest level of shock to the confederate because they were ordered to do so by the experimenter
* Even when the confederate screamed or begged the participant to stop, the majority of participants still followed orders to shock the confederate
37
What are group norms?
These are the **rules of behavior** (implicit or explicit) that go along with belonging to a group.
38
Why might many overachievers **dislike** being part of group projects?
Within groups, **social loafing** is common. This occurs when individual members of a group do less than they would on their own because they believe someone else will "pick up the slack" or their performance will be less noticeable.
39
What is **group polarization** and why might it occur?
It is the phenomenon by which **ideas and actions** within a group are more extreme than they would be for the individual members. This may occur because groups tend to strengthen **preexisting** beliefs.
40
What term did **Irving Janis** coin, and what does it mean?
**Groupthink** is the mistaken unanimity of a group decision, which generally ends up negatively. Individual members of a group will downplay their own beliefs about the flaws of a plan for the sake of unanimity.
41
What may cause a person to riot when their favorite team wins a championship?
**Deindividuation** is the idea that people lose sight of their individual nature when they are excited (positively or negatively) and feel anonymous, as they might feel being a part of a giant fanbase.
42
What does Zimbardo's prison study suggest about deindividuation?
People adapt to the roles they are given, so context deindividuates people and makes them act in ways they never imagined they would.
* Participants were randomly assigned to be either a guard or a prisoner in a mock prison
* Participants rapidly adapted to their assigned roles (ex. guards became more aggressive and sadistic, prisoners became more passive and dependent), leading to dangerous situations
* Experiment was terminated early because of "guard" cruelty
43
Who performed the first official **social psychology experiment**?
Norman Triplett, 1897
## Footnote
He found that cyclists rode more slowly on their own than they did when other cyclists were riding with them.
44
Who was **Kurt Lewin** and what was his contribution to social psychology?
He is frequently credited as being the "father of social psychology," and he derived **field theory**.
45
What is field theory?
It is Kurt Lewin's theory that our personalities are dynamic and derived from the many interacting influences in our lives.
These influences, including valence, vector, and barrier, act upon a person's field, or **life space**.
46
What were two of **Fritz Heider**'s major contributions to social psychology?
1. attribution theory
2. balance theory
47
What is attribution theory?
The attempt to understand events and behaviors by attributing **intentions** to others.
48
According to Fritz Heider, why do our feelings and beliefs tend to stay consistent over time?
**Balance theory** states that people want to maintain psychological stasis, so there is an urge to preserve attitudes through time.
49
What idea explains the **difference** in **perspective** between the person performing an action and the person observing the same action?
actor-observer attributional divergence
50
Seeing a relationship between two **unrelated** things is called what?
illusory correlation
51
The idea that one small belief change begets larger belief changes that ultimately snowball, making a large impact is known as what?
slippery slope
52
Studies have shown that doctors overestimate their ability to know the outcome of a case, and that they claim after the fact to have "known it all along." What **psychological effect** is occurring?
hindsight bias
53
What **psychological effect** is occurring when you believe a beautiful girl must also be smart and kind?
The **halo effect** is the belief that because a person has a good trait, all their traits must also be good.
54
How might **self-fulfilling prophecy** explain why people think the prettiest girl in school is stuck up?
Self-fulfilling prophecy states that when we have a **preconceived notion** about a person, group, or situation, we will behave in a way that will get the outcome we expect.
So we may treat the prettiest girl in school in a way that may make her feel defensive, which can make her seem stuck up.
55
What did Lee Ross show in studies of people defending **incorrect** answers?
If a person was able to rationalize an incorrect answer before they learned it was false, they would **persist** in their belief that the incorrect answer was actually **true**.
56
What is **Richard Nisbett** best known for?
He is known for his studies showing that mental processes shape our preferences **subconsciously** and that we are unaware of why we do what we do.
57
What is **base rate fallacy**?
**Base rate fallacy** is using irrelevant information and ignoring relevant information to make a decision or hypothesis.
58
Who studied the **illusion** of control?
Ellen Langer
59
Using fuzzy trolls and rabbits' feet in bingo is an example of what?
Thinking you can control the outcome of something chance-based is known as the **illusion of control**.
60
After a school shooting, people are quick to attribute one single, simple cause to the events, rather than believing a number of factors contributed. What is this an example of?
oversimplification
## Footnote
People will also persevere in their beliefs despite new information to the contrary.
61
What is an availability heuristic?
You judge the **first things that come to mind** as the most important because they are more salient.
## Footnote
For example, people may think air travel is more dangerous than car travel because they see more news stories about plane crashes than car accidents, so plane crashes come to mind first.
62
How can a representativeness heuristic lead to stereotyping?
**Representativeness heuristics** take information we have already conceptualized with prototypes and applying them to all situations to make a **judgment**.
If your prototype of a specific group is negative because of one person in that group, it could lead to incorrectly stereotyping the whole group.
63
Who is the social psychologist most closely associated with **cognitive dissonance** theory?
Leon Festinger
64
Who is the **social psychologist** most closely linked with self-perception theory?
Daryl Bem
65
How does Bem's self-perception theory **contrast** with Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory?
**Festinger** believes that actions are born of beliefs, rather than the other way around. **Bem** believes that people who are uncertain of their beliefs may consider their behavior for better understanding.
66
The fear of making one's passion one's job and losing passion for it is known in social psychology as what?
The **overjustification effect** assumes that we have to be paid for our jobs because we don't want to do them. Therefore, if we are paid for something we love, we will lose our passion for it. This is part of the self-perception theory.
67
Why would social psychology explain why we might like a rags-to-riches story more than a consistently happy story?
The **gain-loss theory** believes that we like "gain" more than consistency, so a consistently happy story would have no "gain" and a rags-to-riches story would start sad but end up happy, with more "gain."
68
# Fill in the blanks:
Social exchange theory asserts that our interactions are such that they minimize \_\_\_\_\_\_ and maximize \_\_\_\_\_\_.
costs; rewards
69
What are the two **facets** of self-presentation?
1. self-monitoring
2. impression management
## Footnote
Self-presentation influences our behavior so that we are accepted by others.
70
What is self-monitoring?
When people pay attention to and modify their own behaviors, often to be more **favorable** to others.
71
What is impression management?
Acting in ways that are perceived **favorably** by others.
72
According to the theory of **social facilitation**, what helps or hinder performance on tasks?
the presence of others
73
What did Robert Zajonc find about **social facilitation**?
Other people around **improves performance** on easy tasks, but worsens performance on difficult tasks.
74
The process of **evaluating your own** abilities, actions, and ideas **against others'** is known as what?
social comparison
75
According to the theory of social comparison, why is **mainstreaming** children with disabilities a bad idea?
Social comparisons are made to others in the immediate surroundings, so children with disabilities might compare themselves to children without disabilities and **develop low self-esteem**.
76
According to Stanley Milgram, why would New Yorkers be considered rude and standoffish, as compared to people from less populated areas?
The **stimulus overload theory** believes that people in densely populated areas are less prosocial because they have excessive stimuli and can't handle any more.
77
# Fill in the blanks:
Constant communication between people, or \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ influences behavior.
reciprocal interaction
78
What theory states that a person who is grossly overpaid for his job will be more uncomfortable than a person who is fairly paid for his job?
**Equity theory** asserts that we are most comfortable in situations where both rewards and punishments are equitable or logical.
79
Who is known for his **prisoner's dilemma** and trucking company game studies?
Morton Deutsch
80
What are the three main **factors** in the prisoner's dilemma and trucking company game studies?
1. cooperation
2. competition
3. trust
## Footnote
Prisoners must trust that their cohort will cooperate with their plan, and trucking companies must trust that the other company will not break the deal and compete for business.
81
What are conditions under which **conformity** is likely?
* a majority of the group agrees
* the majority is unanimous
* there is a concern about losing status with dissent
* the situation is occurring publicly
* the person conforming isn't committed to other options
* the person conforming has low self-esteem
82
Within the context of conformity, what is the **difference** between compliance and acceptance?
* **Compliance** occurs when an individual conforms publicly but maintains a dissenting belief.
* **Acceptance** occurs when an individual conforms and does not have dissenting feelings.
83
Within the context of conformity, what is a **dissenter**?
A person who openly opposes the majority.
84
What are **conditions** under which conformity will not likely occur?
* When it is obvious that the majority is trying to control, **reactance** may occur.
* When people are forewarned that they are going to be controlled, they withstand the pressure of conformity.
85
Under what **conditions** is a speaker likely to influence a listener's beliefs or attitudes?
* the speaker is overheard instead of addressing the listener directly
* the speaker is involved in a two-way exchange, like a debate
* the speaker's message is emotional, shocking, or evocative of emotion
* the speaker is trustworthy or respected
* there are similarities between the listener and the speaker
* the listener accepts the speaker
86
According to **R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo**'s elaboration likelihood, why would a celebrity speaking out for a cause only sway people who were not already heavily involved with the cause?
They argue that people who are **deeply involved** with an issue or cause will only be persuaded by the strength of an argument and will **ignore superficial factors**, like the fame or attractiveness of the speaker.
87
Why might a negative campaign ad from a source with low credibility still be more effective than a highly persuasive campaign ad from a very credible source?
The **sleeper effect** is a counterintuitive phenomenon that shows confidence in a message from a source that is less credible will become stronger over time, so an undecided voter may be more strongly swayed.
88
Why is McGuire's **inoculation theory** aptly named?
The theory states that untested beliefs are **vulnerable**, but beliefs that have been challenged and defended persevere. Like a vaccine, a small challenge makes one's beliefs stronger and more immune to other challenges.
89
Why do people take less individual responsibility for group actions as the group gets larger?
As groups get larger, there is a greater **diffusion of responsibility** among group members, resulting from deindividuation. If nobody is an individual, nobody takes individual responsibility.
90
# Fill in the blank:
According to Zimbardo, \_\_\_\_\_\_ behavior is increased in densely populated areas, based on his research with cars left in New York City and Palo Alto, CA.
antisocial
91
What did James Stoner suggest about **points of view** in groups?
He argued that the dominant views are often strengthened and gain unanimity (**group polarization**). Because of this strengthened point of view, groups are more likely to engage in risky behavior than individuals, called the **risky shift**.
92
What did Kenneth and Mamie Clark's doll studies suggest about **segregation**?
The studies showed that African-American children in segregated schools thought white dolls were superior to black dolls, and children in integrated schools did not. They argued schools should be **integrated** because segregation was a cause of **low self-esteem**.
93
According to attraction and liking research, do opposites really attract?
No
94
What allows **feelings** of emotional closeness to grow within a relationship?
**Reciprocity of disclosure**, or sharing emotions, feelings, and secrets with one another.
95
Why should you not go skydiving on a first date?
The **excitation-transfer theory** argues that physiological arousal will transfer to unrelated areas. If you skydive, you may think the rush you feel is because you like your date, when really you may not like him (or her) at all.
96
What are the two **coping differentiations** made by Richard Lazarus?
1. **problem-focused coping**: changing the thing creating stress
2. **emotion-focused coping**: changing the way you feel about the stressor by controlling emotions
97
What is **objective self-awareness** and what is its **counterpart**?
It is the ability to attend to our thoughts, actions, feelings, and selves, and it is countered by **deindividuation**.
98
What **instrument** might a researcher use to increase truthfulness in self-reports?
a bogus pipeline
## Footnote
This is a "machine" that the respondent believes will notify experimenters to lies or falsifications, thereby reducing the difference between the respondent's actual bias and reported bias.
99
What **principle** believes that people will get promoted at work until they reach a level where they become incompetent, and will ultimately remain in that position?
The Peter Principle
100
What did Stuart Valins study, supporting the idea that **environment affects behavior**?
stress levels in differently shaped rooms
101
How does Leonard Berkowitz's **frustration-aggression** hypothesis help explain scapegoating?
It theorizes that when trying to accomplish a task, there will naturally be **interference**, which causes frustration, further causing aggression. This aggression is frequently misplaced onto others, or **scapegoats**.
102
What did M. Rokeach find with regard to **racial bias and belief similarity**?
People want to be around others who have **similar beliefs** and attitudes, rather than people with a similar skin color.
103
What are the three parts of Fischbein and Ajzen's theory of **reasoned action**?
behavioral intention = attitudes toward that behavior + subjective norms
104
Why is **cross-cultural research** important for psychology?
Not all cultures are the same, so before something can be considered normal or abnormal, **cultural variation** must be taken into account to avoid improper generalization.
105
According to Elaine Hatfield, what are the two types of **love**?
1. **passionate love**: accompanied by physiological arousal, characterized by a longing for another
2. **companionate love**: love for people whose lives are deeply connected with our own
Passionate love is seen frequently at the beginnings of relationships, while companionate love is seen in later stages of relationships.
106
According to Paul Ekman, what are the six basic **emotions** all humans have?
1. happiness
2. sadness
3. fear
4. disgust
5. anger
6. surprise
107
What is reciprocal socialization?
**Socialization** by both parties in a relationship. Parents and children are a good example, as children learn socially accepted behaviors from their parents, and parents learn newer, more current terminology.
108
What is the **purpose** of FACS coding?
The **Facial Action Coding System** (FACS) is used to analyze facial expressions and sort them into emotion categories. It can also analyze whether a smile is genuinely reflective of emotion or not.
109
Harold Kelley is known for his view on **attribution theory**. What were the three parts of this view?
1. **consistency**: given a similar situation, would most people react consistently?
2. **distinctiveness**: would this behavior vary if the situation were slightly or very different?
3. **consensus**: do most people engage in this behavior given the same situation?
110
How did **Walter Dill Scott** help usher in the use of psychology in business?
He used psychology in advertising to target consumers and he helped the military **implement the use of psychological testing** for personnel purposes.
111
What **term**, used in industrial/organizational psychology, did Henry Landsberger coin in 1955?
Hawthorne effect
## Footnote
The Hawthorne effect is the phenomenon where people increase workplace productivity if they believe they are being watched.
112
What were the **phases of group dynamics** observed during Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment?
1. **in-group phase**: people form bonds with those who are similar
2. **friction phase**: different in-groups compete with one another
3. **integration phase**: through superordinate goals, the competing groups work together, reducing intergroup tension.
113
What **term** represents the interplay between humans and technology in work environments?
sociotechnical system
114
A **cost** that will never be recovered and, therefore, should be ignored, is called what?
a sunk cost
115
Explain **Biddle**'s role theory.
This theory believes that people have an **understanding** of the roles they are supposed to fill and **change** their behavior to fit those roles.
116
Briefly explain **Heider**'s balance theory.
When three elements interact, **stress** will occur if they do not interact harmoniously. If the elements lack balance, an effort will be made to create balance, thereby **reducing stress**.
A way to remember this is by considering the idea that "the enemy of my enemy is my friend." Agreeing with the enemy or disagreeing with the friend will create imbalance.
117
What are three types of **cognitive dissonance**?
1. free-choice dissonance
2. forced-compliance dissonance
3. post-decisional dissonance
118
What kind of **dissonance** occurs when choosing between two or more positive options?
free-choice dissonance
119
When would **forced-compliance** dissonance occur?
When a person is forced to do something that **conflicts** with their existing attitudes or beliefs.
120
How does the spreading of alternatives **reduce** dissonance?
It emphasizes the **positive aspects** of a chosen option. If trying to decide between two job applicants, a manager will consider the one she chose to be smarter, more capable, etc., to reduce dissonance.
121
What allows us to **feel** the emotions of others?
empathy
122
What was Batson's **empathy-altruism** hypothesis?
He believed that when we see someone else suffering, we will experience an **empathic** response and be more likely to help, even if helping the other person is for selfish reasons (like relieving one's own distress).
123
What does Bandura's social learning theory suggest about **aggression**?
We learn aggression by observing it directly (**modeling**) or **reinforcement**, which they believe will grant them a reward of some kind.
This research was done in the famous "Bobo doll" study.
124
When someone stands in your "personal bubble," you tend to move away. What is the name for the study of **personal space**?
proxemics
125
What is the primary **focus** of drive-reduction theory?
Reducing physiological needs and maintaining homeostasis.
## Footnote
Drive-reduction theory, proposed by Clark Hull, suggests that physiological needs create a state of tension (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
126
# True or False:
Incentive theory emphasizes the role of internal states over external stimuli in motivation.
False
## Footnote
Incentive theory focuses on external stimuli, suggesting that people are motivated by a desire for rewards or incentives, rather than by internal states or needs.
127
List the five levels of Maslow's **hierarchy of needs** in order from basic to advanced.
1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Love/Belonging
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualization
## Footnote
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid, with basic needs at the bottom and higher-order needs at the top. According to Maslow, individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing higher-level growth needs.
128
# Fill in the blank:
Self-determination theory emphasizes the importance of \_\_\_\_\_\_ in motivation.
autonomy
## Footnote
Self-determination theory, developed by Deci and Ryan, posits that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate and universal psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
129
What do **expectancy-value** models predict about behavior?
Behavior is determined by the **expected** outcome and the **value** of that outcome.
## Footnote
Expectancy-value models suggest that motivation is based on the expectation of success (expectancy) and the subjective value of succeeding. Individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors they believe will lead to valued outcomes.
130
# Define:
approach-avoidance motivation
A **conflict** between a desire to approach a positive outcome and avoid a negative one.
## Footnote
Approach-avoidance motivation involves situations where a single goal or event has both attractive and unattractive elements, leading to ambivalence about pursuing or avoiding the goal.
131
What is the primary **focus** of individualistic cultures?
Emphasis on personal achievements and individual rights.
## Footnote
Individualistic cultures prioritize personal goals over group goals, valuing independence and self-reliance.
132
# Define:
high-context culture
A culture in which communication relies heavily on implicit messages and context.
## Footnote
In high-context cultures, much of the communication is understood through non-verbal cues, shared experiences, and societal norms rather than explicit words.
133
# True or False:
Gender role socialization is solely influenced by biological factors.
False
## Footnote
Gender role socialization is shaped by a combination of biological, social, and cultural influences, including family, media, and education.
134
What does **gender schema** theory propose?
It suggests that individuals form a **cognitive framework** based on gender-related information.
## Footnote
Gender schema theory posits that people organize information into gender categories, influencing how they perceive themselves and others.
135
Name two factors contributing to **cross-cultural differences** in conformity.
* Cultural norms and values
* Social structures and institutions
## Footnote
Conformity levels vary due to cultural emphasis on group harmony, social hierarchy, and the importance placed on collectivism versus individualism.
136
# Fill in the blank:
In low-context cultures, communication is more \_\_\_\_\_\_.
explicit
## Footnote
Low-context cultures rely on direct communication, where the message is conveyed primarily through words, and less on non-verbal cues or shared context.
137
What is the principle of **kin selection** in evolutionary psychology?
The principle that organisms are more likely to **help relatives**, thus ensuring the survival of **shared genes**.
## Footnote
Kin selection is a type of natural selection that favors altruistic behavior towards close relatives, enhancing reproductive success and genetic propagation.
138
# Define:
inclusive fitness
Inclusive fitness is the sum of an individual's **own reproductive success** and its impact on the reproduction of relatives.
## Footnote
This concept extends the traditional notion of fitness by considering an individual's genetic success through both direct and indirect means.
139
# Describe:
reciprocal altruism
A behavior where an organism acts in a way that is **temporarily disadvantageous**, but benefits another with the expectation of a future return.
## Footnote
Reciprocal altruism is crucial for the evolution of cooperation and is often observed in social animals, including humans.
140
# True or False:
According to parental investment theory, males generally invest more in offspring than females.
False
## Footnote
Parental investment theory suggests that females often invest more in offspring due to the higher reproductive costs they incur, such as gestation and nurturing.
141
What are the two main components of **sexual selection**?
* Intrasexual selection
* Intersexual selection
## Footnote
Intrasexual selection involves competition among the same sex for mates, while intersexual selection involves one sex (usually females) choosing mates based on certain traits.
142
How do evolutionary explanations account for **aggression**?
Aggression can be an **adaptive strategy** for resource acquisition, mate protection, and status improvement.
## Footnote
Evolutionary psychology suggests aggression has been selected for as it can enhance survival and reproductive success under certain conditions.
