Clinical: Personality Flashcards
You will be able to summarize major theories and assessment methods of personality and how individual traits influence behavior and psychological functioning. (135 cards)
1
Q
List:
William Sheldon’s three types of personality.
A
- endomorphy
- ectomorphy
- mesomorphy
These definitions of personality were based on body type.
2
Q
Define:
humanism
A
It is a theory of personality psychology that emphasizes humans’ free will and focuses on therapy that is client-centered.
3
Q
Define:
psychodynamic theory
A
This theory was created by Sigmund Freud. It hypothesized that forces in the unconscious mind define one’s personality and control behaviors and emotions.
4
Q
Name three components in Freud’s structural psychoanalytic theory of personality.
A
- id
- ego
- superego
5
Q
What are the four broad theories of personality?
A
- psychoanalytic
- humanistic
- social-cognitive
- trait theories
Social cognitive was founded in Behaviourism.
6
Q
Fill in the blank:
Freud referred to life energy as __________.
A
libido
7
Q
Fill in the blank:
Although Freud contended that the subconscious plays a major role in behavior, its contents are not accessible. They become accessible through __________, _______ _____, or revealing the _______ _____ of dreams.
A
psychoanalysis; freudian slips; latent content
8
Q
This level, just below the level of conscious awareness, contains thoughts, memories, feelings, and images that are easily recalled.
A
preconscious
9
Q
Fill in the blank:
Freud believed in dream analysis; he composed a list of __________ symbols, items or events that appeared in dreams but in reality represent other items or events in the subconscious.
A
Freudian
10
Q
On which principle does the id operate?
A
the pleasure principle
The id seeks to maximize pleasure while minimizing pain.
11
Q
Fill in the blank:
The superego, the acknowledged opposite of the __________, is an internal representation of society’s rules, morals, and obligations.
A
id
12
Q
Name two things that the ego allows us to accomplish in everyday life?
A
- functioning in the environment
- acting logically
13
Q
On which principle does the ego operate?
A
the reality principle
14
Q
What is the reality principle?
A
The set of desires that can be satisfied only if the means to satisfy them exists and is available.
15
Q
What kind of thought is the ego most involved in?
A
conscious thought
16
Q
What is the purpose of defense mechanisms?
A
The purpose of defense mechanisms is to manage anxiety produced by the id-superego conflict.
17
Q
Fill in the blank:
Repression, a type of defense mechanism, describes the process by which anxiety-provoking memories or desires are moved to the __________.
A
subconscious
18
Q
If, after an argument, a child shows anger not towards his friend, with whom he is angry, but to a stuffed animal, what defense mechanism is he exhibiting?
A
displacement
19
Q
Fill in the blank:
In __________ __________, the ego completely reverses a desire to make itself safer or more socially acceptable.
A
reaction formation
20
Q
What defense mechanism uses logic to excuse emotional or irrational behavior?
A
rationalization
21
Q
Regression involves reverting to what kind of behaviors?
A
childish behaviors
22
Q
Which defense mechanism involves the channeling or redirecting of sexual or aggressive feelings into a more socially acceptable outlet?
A
sublimation
23
Q
What describes man’s inherent envy towards woman’s ability to nurture and sustain life?
A
womb envy
24
Q
In Karen Horney’s theory of personality, what is important in forming the basis of the adult personality?
A
Interactions between the child and the parent as the child deals with basic anxiety.
25
What characterizes **basic anxiety**, a main tenet in Karen Horney's theory of personality?
The feeling of being **alone** in an unfamiliar or hostile world.
26
# Fill in the blank:
**Carl Jung**'s theory of personality is based on the idea that the mind comprises pairs of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
opposing forces
27
What is the **persona**, according to Carl Jung's theory?
The **mask** that each person presents to the outside world.
28
# Fill in the blank:
Carl Jung would describe the **dark**, **passionate**, more **primordial** parts of someone as that person's \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
shadow
29
# Fill in the blanks:
According to Jung, each person contains a female and a male side to our personality, or a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
anima; animus
30
According to Jung's theory, what is the **purpose** of the **self**?
To **balance** the opposing forces and the desires of the mind.
31
What are the two divisions of **unconsciousness** in Jung's theory?
1. personal unconsciousness
2. collective unconscious
32
What comprises the **personal** unconsciousness?
* repressed memories
* clusters of thought
33
What can be found in the **collective** unconscious?
Behavior and memory common to all humans and **passed down** from our ancient and common ancestors, archetypes.
34
How are **archetypes**, found in the collective unconscious, characterized?
The behaviors and memories in the collective unconscious, these are usually **emotionally-laden** thoughts or images.
35
# Fill in the blank:
Alfred Adler's theory of personality speculated that children develop feelings of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ due to their **size and level of competence**, and they spend the rest of their lives trying to overcome it.
inferiority
36
# Fill in the blanks:
According to Adler, the best way to **overcome inferiority** is through development of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; failure to do so could result in the development of a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
social interest; inferiority complex
37
What do the **humanistic** theories of personality emphasize?
The **uniqueness and richness of being human** are central to humanistic theories, which focus on individuals' potential for growth, self-awareness, creativity, and the pursuit of meaning.
38
What two aspects do the **humanistic theories** focus on?
1. subjective reality
2. subjective mental events
39
According to Abraham Maslow's humanist perspective, what is the **ultimate purpose** for **existence**?
self-actualization
40
What characterizes self-actualization?
Creatively becoming the person you are capable of being to your **highest potential**.
## Footnote
Very few people reach this level in Maslow's system.
41
Name two **humanistic** theorists.
1. Abraham Maslow
2. Carl Rogers
42
What is the self-concept?
The **mental representation** of who we feel we truly are.
43
# Fill in the blank:
According to Rogers, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ distort our self-concept.
conditions of worth
44
# Fill in the blank:
In Rogerian theory, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a trait of the therapist that creates a system in which the client **feels safe and can speak freely**.
unconditional positive regard
45
What do **social-cognitive** theories assume about **personality**?
That **cognitive constructs** are the **basis** of the personality.
46
In social-cognitive theory, how are **constructs** **developed** and **modified**?
Through **learning** in **social environments**.
47
# Fill in the blank:
Albert Bandura focused on the idea of \_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_ as **central** to personality.
self-efficacy
48
What does **self-efficacy** encompass?
One's beliefs about his/her own **abilities** in a given situation.
49
Which social-cognitive theory of personality, proposed by Julian Rotter, believes that **effort has a major role in personality**?
locus of control theory
50
What is the **difference** between people who have an internal locus of control and those who have an external locus of control?
* Those with an **internal** locus of control believe that successes or failures are a **direct result of their efforts**.
* Those with an **external** locus of control are more likely to attribute successes or failures to **luck or chance**.
51
# Fill in the blank:
According to trait theorists, traits are largely \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ rather than acquired through experience.
inherited
52
What are the big five **personality traits**?
1. openness/non-openness
2. conscientiousness/undirectedness
3. extroversion/introversion
4. agreeableness/antagonism
5. neuroticism/stability
## Footnote
Use the acronym OCEAN to remember the big five!
53
What are two methods of **trait research analysis**?
1. nomothetic analysis
2. idiographic analysis
54
What is the main **difference** between nomothetic and idiographic traits?
* **Nomothetic** traits are thought to be **universal** (i.e. the big five).
* **Idiographic** traits are **unique** to the individual.
55
According to **Gordon Allport**, what are the three types of **traits**?
1. cardinal
2. central
3. secondary
56
# Fill in the blank:
According to Allport, a trait that **overrides one's whole being** is a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ trait.
cardinal
57
The theory developed by George Kelly, which suggests that we make sense of the world by **generating, testing, and revising hypotheses** about our social reality, is called what?
personal construct theory
58
Who is the theorist known for recognizing that **traits often vary depending on circumstances**?
Walter Mischel
59
Hans Eysenck used factor analysis to identify common behavioral traits along **three dimensions**. What are they?
1. extroversion-introversion
2. neuroticism-stability
3. psychoticism
60
# Fill in the blanks:
Raymond Cattel believed that \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ traits, the person's **underlying characteristics**, were the basis of personality and gave rise to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ traits.
source; surface
61
Typically, what does **psychoanalytic assessment** involve?
A **one-on-one therapist and patient relationship** in which the therapist uses techniques (such as free association and dream recall) to **gain access to the unconscious**.
62
# Fill in the blank:
Used primarily by psychoanalysts, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ present **ambiguous stimuli** (i.e. inkblots) with the assumption that test takers will **project their unconscious thoughts** onto the stimuli.
projective personality tests
63
Andrew is a straight-A student who needs to be **in charge** of all his group projects and gets angry at his group members when they aren't chipping in. Ike is more **go-with-the-flow** and isn't easily angered. Which has the type A personality and which has the type B personality?
* Andrew has the **type A** personality
* Ike has the **type B** personality
64
What are the defining **characteristics** of stage theories?
Stage theories believe people **develop in stages**, or steps, in the **same order**, **without skipping a step**, and one stage can be distinguished from all other stages.
65
What are the stages of Freud's **psychosexual stage** theory?
1. oral stage (birth to one year)
2. anal stage (one to three years)
3. phallic stage (three to five years)
4. latency stage (six years to puberty)
5. genital stage (puberty onward)
66
What research effect observes that individuals will claim **general descriptions of their personality** (that can apply to a wide range of people) are highly accurate?
Barnum effect
## Footnote
The effect is named after P.T. Barnum.
67
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and the \_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_ are two subsystems of the **superego**.
conscience; ego-ideal
68
# Define:
suppression
It is the Freudian defense mechanism that involves **deliberate forgetting** of anxiety-provoking material.
69
When I say, "Maggie is afraid of spiders" when, in reality, I am afraid of spiders, I am employing which **defense mechanism**?
projection
70
Which **personality psychologist**'s system of extroversion and introversion inspired the Myers-Briggs personality test?
Carl Jung
## Footnote
This system also included: thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting.
71
How does one **overcome basic anxiety** in Karen Horney's psychological system?
1. Withdrawal from people who provoke basic anxiety.
2. Deliberate movement towards people who remove basic anxiety.
3. Conflict with people who can be overcome.
72
# Define:
fictional finalism
According to Alfred Adler, people are more motivated by their **fictional expectations** for the future than they are by past experiences.
73
# Define:
creative self
The unique qualities within someone that help them **express a personality** in a singular way.
74
# Fill in the blank:
Alfred Adler described a system called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ in which someone's unique way of **achieving superiority** was reflected in the **personal choices** s/he made.
style of life
75
Who identified the **defense mechanisms**?
Anna Freud
76
# Define:
Ego psychology
A form of **psychoanalytic theory** in which the most important element was the **ego** as it related to the **conscious** world.
77
What is object-relations theory?
A psychodynamic system in which children create and develop **internalized symbols** or objects which are significant representations of their **personalities**.
78
Name 4 **object-relations** psychologists
1. Otto Kernberg
2. Margaret Mahler
3. Melanie Klein
4. D.W. Winnicott
79
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a system initially outlined by Sigmund Freud, is a kind of **long-term psychotherapy** that involves **unconvering unconscious/repressed conflicts** that arose in psychosexual development.
Psychoanalysis
80
If I say "knife" and encourage my patient to say any words s/he may associate with that word, no matter how unrelated they may seem, I am trying to use what **psychoanalytic technique**?
free association
81
Freud developed a system of **dream interpretation** based on what premise?
The dreaming mind is more relaxed, so that the **unconscious desires and repressions** can be revealed through dream analysis.
82
What are some indications that a patient is exhibiting resistance to psychoanalysis?
* missing sessions
* unwillingness to free associate
* withholding dream information
* refusal to participate in therapeutic activities
* changing topics
83
# Define:
transference
The feelings and behaviors that the patient develops for the therapist that are **reflections of past and current relationships**.
84
# Fill in the blank:
The **emotions** that the **therapist** develops toward a patient are called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
countertransference
85
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ personality treatments are based on **present life situations** and **interpersonal** relationships.
Neo-Freudian
86
# Define:
behaviorist theory of personality
This theory places an emphasis on **behavior as the source of personality**: people develop based on their interactions with their environments.
87
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ were behaviorist psychologists who examined **stimulus-responses** and **conflicting motivations** as the basis for personality development.
John Dollard; Neal Miller
88
Albert Bandura's system used what theory of **personality development**?
social learning theory
## Footnote
This theory states that people's personalities develop as a reflection of the behavioral models they encounter during their lives.
89
What did Kurt Lewin's field theory of **personality psychology** emphasized?
His theory presents personality as **dynamic and constantly changing**, rather than being defined by fixed or static traits.
90
# List:
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
1. physiological
2. safety
3. love/belonging
4. esteem
5. self-actualization
91
If I encourage my patient to look for **life's meanings** through making **personal choices**, what kind of therapy am I using?
humanist-existential therapy
92
What is client-centered therapy?
It is a **therapeutic technique** developed by Carl Rogers that emphasized the importance of the **client directing the therapy**, as the most important part of this system is being able to learn to make **positive behavioral choices**.
93
What is Viktor Frankl's primary **contribution** to psychology?
Frankl created **logotherapy** (a form of existential therapy that is influential to humanist, psychoanalytic, and other schools of thought).
## Footnote
Frankl, a psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor, wrote **Man's Search for Meaning**, in which he explained his therapeutic approach and described his struggle for survival as a prisoner in a Nazi Concentration Camp. Frankl reflected on the importance of learning to find meaning in life, even when conditions were brutal. **Man's Search for Meaning** was a bestseller, and remains a powerful and important text.
Here is an excerpt from one of Frankl's addresses during [a Ted Talk](https://www.ted.com/talks/viktor\_frankl\_youth\_in\_search\_of\_meaning).
94
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ was a personality psychologist who used factor analysis to determine **16 basic traits** that make the building blocks of personality.
Raymond Cattell
95
# Fill in the blank:
If I used to shop because I needed clothes and now I shop because I simply enjoy shopping, this activity is said to have attained \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
functional autonomy
96
# Define:
the need for achievement
This is a personality trait developed by David McClelland in which people who are high in this trait take **extreme pride in personal achievement**, so they tend to minimize risk and emphasize realistic goals.
97
# Fill in the blank:
Herman Witkin tied \_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to personality by differentiating between people who **make specified responses based on stimuli** and those who have **difficulty differentiating answers based on specific stimuli**.
field-dependence
98
What tendencies do people who are high in the personality trait "**Machiavellianism**" exhibit?
Be **excellent manipulators** and tend to believe they know what's best for others.
99
# Fill in the blank:
Sandra Bem's theory is based on a personality test in which \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are measured and assessed.
masculinity; femininity
100
# Define:
androgyny
Within Sandra Bem's system, it is the characteristic of having a personality that is **both feminine and masculine**.
101
# Define:
rational-emotive theory
This is a combination of **emotion**, **cognitive**, and **behavioral** aspects of psychology that operates from the belief that **thoughts, together with feelings, create behaviors**.
102
# Define:
ectomorph
In Sheldon's personality system, ectomorphs are people with **lanky-thin body-types**. These people tend to be **reserved**, **introverted**, **private**, and **thoughtful**.
103
Jeff is a man with large forearms and is generally fairly **muscular**. He is **competitive**, **adventurous**, **courageous**, and often takes risks; which of Sheldon's personality types does he fit?
mesomorph
104
An **endomorph** usually has a stout, round, often fatty, body type. These people tend to have what sorts of personality traits?
* a fun-loving nature
* general good humor
* affectionate
* tolerance
* relaxed
105
“The same heat that melts the butter hardens the egg.”
and
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environments”
Gordon Allport
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation (1937)
The same experience (or challenge) that impacts one individual negatively may build strength in another (and vice versa), and a substantial part of what determines how one reacts is one's personality.
106
William James, author of the classic text **Principles of Psychology** (1890) is considered to be the father of modern psychology.
James' work continues to be well-respected. How does James describe personality?
According to James, personality is an **interplay of instincts, habits, and personal choices**.
107
# Fill in the blanks:
Based on Allport's theory, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ traits are the person's **primary characteristics**, and traits that constitute **interests** are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
central; secondary
108
What is the main **difference** between self-report and projective methods in psychological testing?
* **Self-report** methods involve individuals **providing information about themselves**, typically through questionnaires or interviews.
* **Projective** methods involve **interpreting ambiguous stimuli** to uncover unconscious processes.
## Footnote
Self-report methods rely on the individual's self-awareness and honesty, whereas projective methods are based on the projection of internal conflicts or desires onto external stimuli.
109
# True or False:
Objective tests are free from examiner bias.
True
## Footnote
Objective tests have standardized questions and scoring systems that minimize the influence of the examiner's subjective judgment, making them more reliable.
110
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_- \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to the **consistency of results** when a test is administered at different points in time.
Test-retest reliability
## Footnote
Test-retest reliability measures the stability of test scores across repeated applications, indicating the test's temporal stability.
111
What is inter-rater reliability?
The degree of agreement among different raters evaluating the **same phenomenon**.
## Footnote
High inter-rater reliability indicates that different judges or observers consistently assess the same characteristic or behavior in a similar manner.
112
List two **types of validity** important in psychological testing.
* Construct validity
* Criterion validity
## Footnote
Construct validity assesses whether a test measures what it claims to measure, while criterion validity examines how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another, established measure.
113
What does **norming** and **standardization** ensure in psychological assessments?
They ensure that test results are **comparable** across different individuals by providing a reference point.
## Footnote
Norming involves establishing norms based on test scores from a representative sample, while standardization ensures uniform procedures in test administration and scoring.
114
Identify a **major inventory** used in psychological assessment.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
| (MMPI)
## Footnote
The MMPI is widely used to assess personality structure and psychopathology through a comprehensive set of statements to which individuals respond.
115
What type of data is **S-data** and how is it collected?
It refers to **self-report data**, which is collected through questionnaires or interviews where individuals provide **information about themselves**.
## Footnote
S-data is valuable for assessing personal beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors directly from the individual's perspective.
116
What does **I-data** stand for in psychological assessments?
Informant data
## Footnote
I-data is gathered from knowledgeable informants such as family members or peers who provide information about the individual being assessed, offering an external perspective on their behavior.
117
Describe **L-data** in psychological testing.
L-data, or **Life data**, encompasses information derived from **real-life outcomes and records**, such as academic performance or criminal records.
## Footnote
L-data provides objective evidence of an individual's life events and achievements, reflecting real-world behavior.
118
How does the **NEO-PI-R** inventory assess personality?
It measures five major domains of personality:
* Neuroticism
* Extraversion
* Openness
* Agreeableness
* Conscientiousness
## Footnote
The NEO-PI-R is based on the Five Factor Model of personality and is used to understand individual differences in personality traits.
119
What is the **16PF** used for?
To assess personality traits across 16 different dimensions.
| (16 Personality Factors Questionnaire)
## Footnote
Created by Raymond Cattell, the 16PF helps in understanding an individual's personality profile and is used in various settings, including employment and counseling.
120
What is the **main focus** of the person–situation debate in psychology?
The degree to which a person's behavior is influenced by their **personality versus the situation** they are in.
## Footnote
This debate explores whether consistent traits or environmental contexts are more influential in determining behavior.
121
# True or False:
The consistency paradox suggests that people's behavior is highly consistent across different situations.
False
## Footnote
The consistency paradox refers to the observation that people's behavior can vary significantly across different situations, despite having stable personality traits.
122
# Define:
behavioral signatures
**Unique patterns** of behavior that an individual exhibits in response to specific situations.
## Footnote
Behavioral signatures reflect the interaction between a person's stable traits and varying situational contexts, highlighting individuality in behavior.
123
What does the **predictive validity of traits** refer to?
The extent to which personality traits can **accurately forecast future behaviors** or outcomes.
## Footnote
Predictive validity is crucial in assessing how well personality measures can predict real-world phenomena, such as job performance or personal relationships.
124
# Fill in the blank:
Personality traits have been linked to life outcomes such as \_\_\_\_\_\_, work, and relationships.
health
## Footnote
Personality traits like conscientiousness and openness can influence health behaviors, career success, and relationship satisfaction.
125
What **role** do personality traits play in work outcomes?
* Influence job performance
* Affect career satisfaction
* Impact leadership potential
## Footnote
Traits such as conscientiousness and emotional stability are often associated with higher job performance and leadership effectiveness.
126
How can personality influence **health outcomes**?
* Affects health behaviors
* Impacts stress response
* Influences health-related decision making
## Footnote
Conscientious individuals are more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors, while neuroticism can lead to increased stress and health risks.
127
In what ways do personality traits affect **relationships**?
* Determine compatibility
* Influence communication styles
* Impact conflict resolution
## Footnote
Traits like agreeableness and extraversion can lead to more satisfying and stable relationships due to better communication and conflict management.
128
What is the **Barnum** effect?
The tendency for people to **accept vague, general statements** as personally **meaningful**.
## Footnote
Named after P.T. Barnum, the Barnum effect is often seen in horoscopes and personality tests, where statements are so general they apply to almost anyone.
129
# True or False:
Personality assessments are free from ethical concerns.
False
## Footnote
Ethical concerns in personality assessments include issues like privacy, informed consent, potential misuse of results, and bias in the tests themselves.
130
What is a key **difference** between '**trait**' and '**state**' in personality psychology?
* Traits are **enduring characteristics**.
* States are **temporary conditions**.
## Footnote
Traits refer to consistent patterns in behavior, thought, and emotion, whereas states are transient and situation-dependent.
131
List two common **uses** of personality assessments in organizational settings.
* Employee selection
* Team building
## Footnote
Personality assessments can help match employees to suitable roles and improve teamwork by understanding individual differences.
132
How do cross-cultural differences **impact** personality assessment?
**Cultural norms and values** influence how personality traits are perceived and expressed.
## Footnote
Cross-cultural differences can lead to variations in test responses, necessitating culturally sensitive assessment tools to ensure accuracy and fairness.
133
What is one **controversy** surrounding the labeling of personality disorders?
Labeling can lead to **stigma** and **self-fulfilling prophecies**.
## Footnote
Labels can negatively impact individuals' self-concept and how they are perceived by others, potentially affecting treatment outcomes.
134
# Fill in the blank:
Developmental change in personality refers to changes in personality traits over the \_\_\_\_\_\_.
lifespan
## Footnote
Personality is not fixed and can change due to life experiences, aging, and personal growth, challenging the idea of personality as static.
135
Name one **ethical consideration** in forensic settings using personality assessments.
Ensuring assessments are valid and reliable for **legal contexts**.
## Footnote
In forensic settings, the consequences of assessment results are significant, necessitating rigorous standards to avoid miscarriages of justice.
