Developmental: Various Topics Flashcards
You will be able to outline the psychological changes across the lifespan, including cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development, as influenced by biological and environmental factors. (171 cards)
1
Q
What defines the life-span perspective of developmental psychology?
A
The study of changes in abilities, thoughts, and behaviors that occur as one ages.
2
Q
Which pervasive debate in developmental psychology deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior?
A
nature vs. nurture debate
3
Q
Define:
nature
A
As part of the nature vs. nurture debate, people who emphasize nature believe that people develop based on unique qualities inherent in their genetic code.
4
Q
Fill in the blank:
______ is the half of the nature vs. nurture debate that states one’s development is based entirely in the experiences and environment that person has.
A
Nurture
5
Q
What is the difference between life-span psychologists and child psychologists?
A
- Life-span psychologists study human development from infancy to old age, examining changes across the entire life span.
- Child psychologists focus specifically on development and behavior during infancy, childhood, and sometimes adolescence.
6
Q
What is defined as the typical sequence of developmental changes for a group of people?
A
normative development
7
Q
Describe:
cross-sectional method
A
This method compares groups of people of different ages on similar tasks.
8
Q
Describe:
longitudinal method
A
It involves following a small group of people over a long portion of their lives, assessing change at set intervals.
9
Q
Describe:
cohort effect
A
When there are differences in the experiences of each age group as a result of growing up in different historical times.
10
Q
In which study method are cross-sectional groups assessed at least two times over a span of months or years?
A
cohort-sequential studies
11
Q
What is maturation?
A
The biological and genetic processes of growth and development that occur naturally over time, independent of environmental influences.
12
Q
Maturationists emphasize which of the following?
- Conceptualizing different learning cues and incorporating them into future interactions.
- Genetically programmed growth and development of the body.
- Learning through various social interactions over the lifetime.
A
Genetically programmed growth and development of the body.
13
Q
From the maturation perspective of development, what is the benefit of greater preprogrammed physiological development of the brain?
A
More complex conceptualization and reasoning.
14
Q
True or False:
Continuous development is gradual.
A
True
One example of continuous development is social skill building.
15
Q
Fill in the blank:
One example of stage-oriented, or ______ learning, is experiencing a growth spurt.
A
discontinuous
16
Q
Fill in the blank:
The time during which a skill or ability must develop is referred to as the ______.
A
critical period
17
Q
What are the two divisions of culture in developmental psychology?
A
- collectivist
- individualist
18
Q
Which type of culture promotes personal needs above the needs of the society?
A
individualist
Western cultures are typically viewed as individualist cultures.
19
Q
What do collectivist cultures emphasize?
A
The needs of society, which are placed before the needs of the individual.
Many Asian cultures are considered collectivist cultures.
20
Q
Fill in the blank:
Stages are patterns of behavior that occur in a ______ ______.
A
fixed sequence
21
Q
How do the developmental stages of psychology work?
A
each stage has a unique set of cognitive structures (or sets of mental abilities) that build on the cognitive structures established in the previous stage such that one cannot skip a step.
22
Q
What are the three realms of development?
A
- physical
- cognitive
- social
23
Q
What six reflexes is the neonate equipped with?
A
- sucking reflex
- palmar reflex
- Babinski reflex
- head-turning (rooting) reflex
- Moro reflex
- orienting reflex
24
Q
When I put my finger in a neonate’s hand and she grabs it, this exemplifies which reflex?
A
palmar reflex
25
According to the Babinski reflex, what **response** will an infant have to being stroked on the bottom of the foot?
the toes will splay out
26
When an infant's head is suddenly moved, the infant's limbs will splay out, they will extend their limbs, and then hug themselves. This exemplifies which infantile **reflex**?
Moro reflex
27
What is the head-turning, or rooting, reflex?
The response elicited by touching the baby's cheek.
28
Which **reflex** is triggered by placing something in the baby's mouth?
sucking reflex
29
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ development refers to the learning, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving development.
Cognitive
30
Jean Piaget's **developmental** theory is based on what concept?
A child's attempt to reach a balance between what he encounters in the environment and what cognitive structures he brings to the situation (**equilibration**).
31
What is one way through which children attempt to reach equilibration, according to Piaget's theory?
**Assimilation**, understanding new information based on a pre-exisiting schema.
32
# Fill in the blank:
Assimilation involves incorporating new ideas into already-existing mental representations, or \_\_\_\_\_\_.
schemas
33
What **process** must a child undergo when faced with information that does not easily fit into an existing schema?
accommodation
34
What are Piaget's **stages of development**?
1. sensorimotor
2. pre-operational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational
35
**Reflexive** reactions and circular reactions (repeated behaviors through which the infant manipulates the environment) are typical in which of Piaget's stages of development?
sensorimotor stage
36
# Fill in the blank:
The pre-operational stage of Piaget's theory of development is characterized by the shift to \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_, the ability to use words to substitute for objects.
symbolic thinking
37
What two important concepts appear during Piaget's **concrete operational** stage?
1. reversibility
2. conservation
38
# Define:
Reversibility
This is the understanding that many mathematical and practical operations can be reversed.
39
If I have a set amount of water that I pour into different sized glasses, a child in the concrete operational stage of Piaget's theory of development will understand that the amount of water has not changed just because it was arranged differently.
This demonstrates the child's understanding of what concept?
conservation
40
Which stage in Piaget's stages of development is characterized by the presence of **theoretical thinking**?
formal operational stage
41
If a toy disappears from a child's field of view, the child will continue to look for it. This exemplifies the development of which **process** during the sensorimotor stage?
object permanence
42
# Fill in the blank.
The inability to see the world from anyone else's point of view is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
egocentrism
43
If your nephew believes that his stuffed animal is alive, he is subscribing to what **belief**, found in Piaget's pre-operational stage?
animism
44
What two abilities does a child at Piaget's formal **operational** stage acquire?
1. metacognition
2. hypothetical reasoning
45
What are the six basic things to know about **Piaget**?
1. The child's interaction with the physical world leads to logical cognition.
2. He has a stage theory and going through the stages leads to qualitative changes in the way you reason.
3. Universal: everyone develops the same way and culture has only a small role.
4. The mind is active.
5. Functional part of his theory has assimilation and accommodation.
6. Structural part of his theory has schemes and operations.
46
What is metacognition?
The ability to **recognize** one's cognitive processes and change or **adapt** those processes if necessary.
47
# Fill in the blank.
The opposite of egocentrism, the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_, develops around age 4 and allows children to understand that other people see the world differently than they do, such as being able to recognize that a fictional character in a situation may not have the same understanding of a situation as they do.
theory of mind
48
How do psychologists test **theory of mind**?
false-belief task
49
Who was the **theorist** responsible for stressing social factors as critical for developmental processes?
Lev Vygotsky
50
What is internalization?
It is the **absorption of knowledge** into the self from environmental and social contexts.
51
# Fill in the blank:
According to Vygotsky, the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ development is the range between the developed level of ability that a child displays and the potential level of ability of which the child is capable.
zone of proximal
52
Vygotsky proposed that a child realizes his potential through a process that allows him to move across the zone of proximal development by being helped by a peer. What is this **process**?
scaffolding
53
# Fill in the blanks:
As people get older, they show a decrease in \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence, marked by the ability to think in abstract concepts and symbolic relationships. This is accompanied by a simultaneous increase in \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence, marked by specific knowledge of facts and information.
fluid; crystallized
54
Which **theorist** is credited with successfully championing the view that development occurs across an entire lifetime?
Erik Erikson
55
Which **theorist** developed a theory that viewed development as a series of "conflicts" that must be resolved?
Erik Erikson
56
What are the eight stages of Erikson's theory of **psychosocial development**?
1. trust vs. mistrust
2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. initiative vs. guilt
4. industry vs. inferiority
5. identity vs. role confusion
6. intimacy vs. isolation
7. generativity vs. stagnation
8. integrity vs. despair
57
Name and describe the **first stage** in Erikson's psychosocial stage theory.
trust vs. mistrust
## Footnote
During this time, babies learn whether they can trust their environment and their caregivers to provide them with the things they need for survival.
58
Which of Erikson's stages is marked by **potty training** and temper **tantrums**?
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
## Footnote
This is the stage when children begin asserting their control over their bodies and behaviors, usually ages 1-3 years old.
59
If your little brother asks, "**why**?" about everything you do, which of Erikson's stages is he likely in?
initiative vs. guilt
## Footnote
This is the stage where children try to understand the world around them, and asking questions helps them solve problems, ages 3-6.
60
What psychosocial stage begins in **first grade**, and is characterized by children **comparing themselves** to others more regularly than before (meaning they need more positive reinforcement)?
industry vs. inferiority
61
The successful resolution of which one of Erikson's stages results in **fidelity**, or **truthfulness** to oneself?
identity vs. role confusion
62
From around 21-40 years of age, we attempt to find and navigate **meaningful relationships**. What stage is this?
intimacy vs. isolation
63
# Fill in the blanks:
The drive to be productive in one's career and at home, and to leave our "mark" on the world is \_\_\_\_\_\_. While "solving" this can induce feelings of accomplishment, failure to resolve the stage can produce feelings of isolation or \_\_\_\_\_\_.
generativity; stagnation
64
Which stage occurs during old age and involves coming to terms with **successes and failures**?
integrity vs. despair
65
Which 1950s **researcher** was able to demonstrate that rhesus monkeys need comfort and security just as much as food?
Harry Harlow
66
John Bowlby is considered to be the father of what **theory**?
attachment theory
67
What **tendency** is defined as the preference of specific familiar individuals over others in infants?
attachment
68
Describe the **idea** of self-referencing.
Self-referencing is to **observe the behavior of others** in social situations to obtain information or guidance.
69
According to Mary Ainsworth, there are three types of infant **attachment patterns**. What are they?
1. secure
2. insecure/resistant
3. insecure/avoidant
## Footnote
There is also a "disorganized" type of attachment, in which the child behaves erratically.
70
This type of attachment, in which the child uses the parent for **support**, is the most common. What is it?
secure attachment
71
What behaviors are consistent with **anxiously/ambivalently** attached babies in the strange situation experiment?
These babies often show signs of **distress** when parents leave the room, but **resist or refuse** comforting from them when they return.
72
During the strange situation experiment, how do children with **avoidant attachment** behave?
Avoidant children **do not receive a lot of affection** from their parents. There is especially a **lack of comfort** when the child is hurt or sick. When the parent returns from being away, avoidant children will **not seek comfort** from their parent.
73
Mary Ainsworth studied infant attachment using the "strange situation." What is the "**strange situation**"?
The parent or primary guardian leaves a child with a stranger and then returns, observing behavior in **absentia**. This allows researchers to see the infant's style of attachment.
74
Name the three types of **parenting styles**.
1. authoritarian
2. authoritative
3. permissive
75
If a child is routinely spanked for disobedience and lacks curiosity and decision-making capabilities, what **parenting style** do her parents most likely identify with?
authoritarian
76
What **discipline patterns** are consistent with authoritative parenting?
* Rules that are consistently but fairly enforced.
* Behavioral standards that are clearly set but encourage a degree of independence from the child.
## Footnote
Children of authoritative parents are typically more emotionally controlled and trusting than those from other parenting styles.
77
What style of parenting is consistent with a **lack of defined rules** or rules that are **inconsistently** enforced?
permissive parenting
78
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross pioneered a theory of social development about the stages of death and dying in which she identified **stages of grief**. What are the stages?
1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance
79
List the **six stages** and motivators of Kohlberg's moral schema.
* Stage 1 : obedience and punishment
* Stage 2: self-interest
* Stage 3: conformity and seeking social approval
* Stage 4: social order
* Stage 5: social contract
* Stage 6: universal principles
80
Level one of Kohlberg's theory of moral development occurs between ages 7 and 10 and is identified by what two-stage system of **moral judgment**?
preconventional morality
81
Briefly describe the **Heinz dilemma**.
The participant is presented with a scenario in which a man named Heinz had a sick wife. The pharmacist has a cure, but he is selling the drug for 10 times what it is worth and refuses to give it to Heinz at a cheaper price. The participant is asked **is it right or wrong to steal the drug** and why?
82
What does the Heinz dilemma **test**?
The way in which the participant defends his/her answers determines which **phase of morality** they are in.
83
What is the **difference** between stage one and stage two of Kohlberg's stages of preconventional morality?
In stage one, children make judgments motivated by **fear**, whereas in stage two they make judgments by evaluating **benefits** and **reciprocity**.
84
# Fill in the blank:
Kohlberg's level two of moral development is characterized by the utilization of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ , or the internalization of society's rules and morals.
conventional morality
85
In Kohlberg's third level of moral development, which occurs from around age 16 on, the individual adheres to **postconventional morality**, which is characterized by what?
the development of an **internal set of values** that may generate occasional conflict with societal values
86
# Fill in the blank:
Carol Gilligan revised Kohlberg's theory in order to place emphasis on the development of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ as central to moral progress as more important to the moral reasoning of women.
caring relationships
87
# Fill in the blank:
Between ages two and three, children realize they belong to a gender or \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
gender labeling
88
# Fill in the blank.
At ages three to four, a child is able to predict s/he will still be a boy or a girl as an adult, also called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
gender stability
89
# Fill in the blank:
Between ages four and seven, a child realizes that no matter what states occur, gender is permanent, also called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
gender consistency
90
What did Martin and Haverson propose regarding gender **schematic processing theory**?
They proposed that once children label themselves with a gender, they begin to pay more attention to that **gender's behaviors** and stop paying as much attention to the behaviors of the opposite gender.
91
# True or False:
Bandura believed that sexual roles are acquired through social or vicarious learning so that each successive generation provides the model for the following generation.
True
92
Puberty is a sexual maturation, marked by the onset of what **ability**?
The ability to reproduce.
93
# Fill in the blank:
Emerging during puberty, \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_, such as the growth of reproductive organs, develop.
primary sex characteristics
94
# Fill in the blank:
In women, widening of the hips and breast development, would be two features of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
secondary sex characteristics
95
Thomas Hobbes, James Mill, David Hume, and George Berkeley were all members of the British empiricist school of thought; what did these philosophers believe about **development**?
That one gains knowledge through **experience**; the more more experiences you give a child, the more knowledge s/he will have as an adult.
96
# Fill in the blank:
Locke proposed the idea of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_, which states that all development is the direct result of learning; the organism develops more complex behaviors and cognition because it acquires more associations.
tabula rasa
97
Which French philosopher espoused his belief that society is **unnecessary** to a child's development?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
98
What did Charles Darwin **contribute** to the changing of the developmental psychological thought?
He contributed detailed observational books of the developmental progress of children, which detailed the **relationship** between the environment and the individual's changes to **adapt** to the environment.
99
What **work** earned G. Stanley Hall the title of "Father of Developmental Psychology"?
He developed and tested a series of **questionnaires** for children at different ages, and he was the **founder** of the American Psychological Association.
100
# Fill in the blank:
The psychologist \_\_\_\_\_\_ emphasized the role of the environment in shaping a child's behavior, especially the importance of parents in creating well-formed children.
John B. Watson
101
# Describe:
Arnold Gesell's theory of development
Gesell believed that a child's development was a **biological process** that has predictable stages that occur at differ paces for each child.
102
Who invented the **science of genetics**?
Gregor Mendel
103
# Define:
genes
The basic units of **heredity** that carry the information responsible for the inherited traits and characteristics in living organisms.
104
Alternate forms of **genes** are called?
alleles
105
# Fill in the blanks:
For each allele, there is both a \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_ copy of each allele.
dominant; recessive
106
# Fill in the blanks:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ of a person is the exact series of genes in their biological code. The \_\_\_\_\_\_ is a person's visible traits.
genotype; phenotype
107
# Fill in the blanks:
Each human being has all of their genes located on \_\_\_\_\_\_ pairs of \_\_\_\_\_\_.
23; chromosomes
108
# Describe:
R. C. Tyron's studies and their **implications** for developmental psychology.
Tyron kept testing rats to select those who were best at solving mazes. He then bred subsequent generations of rats until he had an entire **family** who were excellent at **solving mazes**. These experiments showed that certain behaviors and the ability to learn is **genetically inherited**.
109
# True or False:
Monozygotic twins share fifty percent of the same genetic material.
False
110
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ twins share fifty percent of the same genetic material, just like non-twin siblings.
Dizygotic
111
Which **psychologist** created a huge longitudinal study comparing the IQs and behaviors of highly intelligent children with normative children in the general population?
Lewis Terman
112
What are the **characteristics** of Down's syndrome?
A genetic anomaly, an extra 21st chromosome, and mental retardation.
113
This **genetic disease** was the first to be tested for large scale populations in infancy. It is a genetic issue with the nervous system that prevents the person from digesting phenylalanine, an amino acid.
Phenylketonuria
114
Name and describe two sex chromosome **abnormalities**.
1. **Klinefelter's Syndrome** (XXY in males, causing sterility and mental retardation)
2. **Turner's Syndrome** (X in females, which causes a lack of secondary sex characteristics and an oddly-shaped physical appearance)
115
# Fill in the blank:
Two gametes, or human sex cells, fuse to form a \_\_\_\_\_\_.
zygote
116
What are the three phases of **gestation** that the zygote experiences?
1. germinal stage
2. embryonic stage
3. fetal stage
117
# Fill in the blank:
During the \_\_\_\_\_\_ phase, the zygote begins to divide and is eventually implanted in the uterine wall. This whole phase takes about two weeks.
germinal
118
Describe the **embryonic phase** of prenatal development.
During this phase, the embryo **increases in size** rapidly, it begins to develop fingers, toes, and genitals.
119
During which **stage of gestation** does the zygote experience rapid growth, movement, and sexual differentiation?
the fetal phase
120
# Define:
babbling
The sounds an infant makes that form the **precursor to language**.
121
What did Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols discover about babbling that influenced **developmental psychology**?
They discovered that all children babble, whether they are deaf or can hear. **Deaf children** stop verbally babbling but will "babble" with their **hands** in a **precursor to sign language**.
122
# Fill in the blank:
Noam Chomsky believed that children had an internal ability to acquire language, which was gathered through a region of the brain called the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
language acquisition device
| (LAD)
123
At what **age** do children begin adding multiple words together?
18-20 months
124
At what **age** do children begin using simple sentences?
2.5-3 years old
125
# Define:
categorical perception
The ability that infants have to **denote** different kinds of sounds that either differentiate meaning or do not.
126
# Fill in the blank:
When toddlers say things like "the cat runned" when they previously said "the cat ran" after learning about past tense verbs, this is an example of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
errors of growth
127
# Describe:
the case study of Genie
Genie was a feral child who had been completely **isolated** from other human beings from the age of 2-13. She was unable to completely learn all aspects of language, which suggested that there was a **critical period** in youth in which a child must **learn language**, or loses the capability.
128
According to Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, what are the three kinds of **infant temperaments**?
* easy
* slow to warm up
* difficult
129
Name three **research methods** that are most commonly used for studying infants.
1. observing infant behavior in the laboratory
2. observing infants in natural settings, such as the home
3. from reports written by the parents/ caregivers
130
What did Wolff discover by analyzing **infant cry patterns**?
He discovered that there are three basic kinds of cries that an infant uses: **pain, anger, and a basic cry** (usually because of hunger).
## Footnote
He also found that parents and non-parent adults alike will respond physiologically to infant cries through increased heart rates.
131
# Define:
social smiling
It is the ability of young infants to smile as a method of **communication** before they can talk. After five months of age, only familiar faces will cause the baby to exhibit a social smile.
132
Explain how the **fear response** changes as the infant ages.
Initially, anything can provoke a fear response in the infant, such as a **sudden change** in stimulus. Eventually, the infant will only demonstrate a fear response when a specific caregiver disappears or a previously harmful stimulus reappears.
133
What does Konrad Lorenz's work on **imprinting** teach us about the way infants bond?
He found that imprinting occurs during specific critical periods in organisms' life, which he abstracted to the lives of humans- they, too, have critical periods for **forming healthy attachments** to parental figures.
134
# Define:
Imprinting
Imprinting is the process by which baby birds and other creatures recognize and become attached to their caregivers, such as when baby birds learn to **recognize and bond** with their mothers from birth.
135
What are some major **differences** between fathers and mothers?
Fathers tend to **play dynamically** with children, often engaged in sports or rough-housing; mothers tend to spend more time talking to the children, and will have more **verbal than physical interactions** with their children.
136
What is the typical **age range** for a child to start rolling over?
4 to 6 months
## Footnote
Rolling over is often one of the first major motor milestones. It indicates the development of muscle strength and coordination.
137
At what **age** do most children begin to sit without support?
Around 6 to 8 months
## Footnote
Sitting without support requires significant control of the trunk muscles and is a precursor to more complex motor skills like crawling.
138
# True or False:
Most children begin crawling before they can sit without support.
False
## Footnote
Typically, children develop the ability to sit without support before they begin crawling, as sitting requires less coordination and strength.
139
By what **age** do most children start walking independently?
12 to 15 months
## Footnote
Walking independently marks a crucial transition in motor skill development, allowing for greater exploration and interaction with the environment.
140
# Define:
proximodistal growth pattern
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
## Footnote
This pattern explains why infants gain control over their shoulder movements before their hands and fingers.
141
What is the **cephalocaudal** growth pattern?
Development occurs from the **head downwards**.
## Footnote
This pattern is evident as infants gain control over head and neck movements before they can control their legs and feet.
142
Place in order:
* crawling
* rolling over
* walking
* sitting without support
* rolling over
* sitting without support
* crawling
* walking
## Footnote
This sequence reflects the typical progression of motor milestones in early childhood development.
143
# Fill in the blank:
In the \_\_\_\_\_\_ growth pattern, infants gain control of their upper body movements before their lower body.
cephalocaudal
## Footnote
The cephalocaudal pattern demonstrates the priority of head and upper body control in early development.
144
What is the **purpose** of the visual cliff experiment?
To study depth perception in infants and animals.
## Footnote
Developed by Eleanor J. Gibson and Richard D. Walk in 1960, the visual cliff experiment uses a glass-covered drop-off to test whether infants can perceive depth and avoid the 'cliff.'
145
# True or False:
Infants show no preference for patterns over solid colors in preferential-looking tasks.
False
## Footnote
Preferential-looking tasks reveal that infants are more interested in patterns and complex stimuli, indicating visual preference and discrimination abilities.
146
Define **habituation** in the context of infant cognition studies.
Habituation is the decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
## Footnote
Habituation shows that infants recognize familiar stimuli and demonstrates their learning and memory capabilities.
147
What does **dishabituation** indicate in an infant's cognitive process?
Recognition of a change or new stimulus.
## Footnote
Dishabituation occurs when an infant responds with increased interest to a new stimulus, showing they differentiate between old and new stimuli.
148
# Fill in the blank:
In preferential-looking tasks, infants are shown two stimuli simultaneously to measure their \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
visual preference
## Footnote
This method measures which stimulus an infant looks at longer, providing insights into their perceptual and cognitive development.
149
Name two methods used to investigate infant **auditory discrimination**.
* High-amplitude sucking
* Head-turn preference
## Footnote
These methods assess how infants differentiate between sounds by measuring their physical responses, such as sucking rate or head orientation.
150
How do researchers measure **depth perception** using the visual cliff?
By observing whether infants will crawl over a perceived drop-off.
## Footnote
The visual cliff consists of a glass surface that appears to drop off, and infants' reluctance to cross it suggests depth perception ability.
151
What does an **increase in looking time** during a preferential-looking task suggest about an infant's perception?
Recognition of a novel or more complex stimulus.
## Footnote
Longer looking times indicate that infants find a stimulus new or more interesting, which is used to assess their cognitive and perceptual processing abilities.
152
What is the main **difference** between classical and operant conditioning?
**Classical conditioning** involves learning through association, while **operant conditioning** involves learning through consequences.
## Footnote
Classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov, pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. Operant conditioning, introduced by B.F. Skinner, uses reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior.
153
# True or False:
Bandura's observational learning requires a direct reinforcement for the learner.
False
## Footnote
Bandura's observational learning, or social learning theory, emphasizes that people can learn new behaviors by observing others, without direct reinforcement or punishment.
154
List the three components of Sternberg's **Triarchic Theory of Intelligence**.
* Analytical intelligence
* Creative intelligence
* Practical intelligence
## Footnote
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory proposes that intelligence is broader than traditional IQ tests. Analytical intelligence involves problem-solving abilities, creative intelligence relates to dealing with novel situations, and practical intelligence is about adapting to the environment.
155
# Fill in the blank:
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intelligence is not a single ability but a range of skills and abilities that includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, and \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence.
spatial
## Footnote
Howard Gardner's theory identifies multiple intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic, which suggest a diverse range of human capabilities.
156
What is **vicarious reinforcement**, according to Bandura?
Learning that occurs by **observing** the reinforcement or **punishment** of another person.
## Footnote
Vicarious reinforcement is a key concept in Bandura's social learning theory, illustrating how individuals can learn behaviors by observing the consequences of others' actions, rather than experiencing them directly.
157
Name one **key principle** of operant conditioning related to behavior increase.
Positive reinforcement
## Footnote
Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a rewarding stimulus following a desired behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future.
158
What are the six basic **emotional expressions** universally recognized across cultures?
1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Fear
4. Disgust
5. Anger
6. Surprise
## Footnote
These basic emotional expressions are considered universal due to their consistent recognition across different cultures, supporting the idea of innate emotional responses.
159
At what **age** do infants typically begin to exhibit social referencing?
Around 8-10 months
## Footnote
Social referencing involves infants looking to caregivers to gauge how to react in uncertain situations, indicating early emotional and social development.
160
# True or False:
Emotional regulation is only important during childhood.
False
## Footnote
Emotional regulation is crucial throughout the lifespan, affecting mental health, social relationships, and overall well-being.
161
# Fill in the blanks:
Emotional regulation involves both \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_ strategies.
intrinsic; extrinsic
## Footnote
Intrinsic strategies include self-soothing, while extrinsic strategies involve seeking comfort from others, both playing roles in managing emotions.
162
What strategy involves **altering one's thoughts** to change emotional impact?
cognitive reappraisal
## Footnote
Cognitive reappraisal is an emotional regulation strategy that changes how one perceives a situation to modify its emotional impact.
163
Name a **physiological process** associated with emotional regulation.
heart rate variability
## Footnote
Heart rate variability is linked to the autonomic nervous system and reflects the body's ability to regulate emotions effectively.
164
Which emotional regulation strategy involves **suppressing** emotional expression?
expressive suppression
## Footnote
Expressive suppression, while sometimes useful, can lead to increased physiological stress and decreased well-being over time.
165
What role does **social referencing** play in emotional development?
* Guides behavior in ambiguous situations
* Builds trust in caregivers
* Enhances understanding of social norms
## Footnote
Social referencing is a crucial developmental milestone that helps infants learn appropriate responses and build social cognition.
166
What are Freud's **psychosexual stages** in order?
* Oral
* Anal
* Phallic
* Latency
* Genital
## Footnote
Freud's theory suggests that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
167
What is the **focus** of the phallic stage in Freud's psychosexual development?
The focus is on the genitals, and children begin to identify with same-sex parents.
## Footnote
The phallic stage occurs between ages 3 and 6 and includes the Oedipus and Electra complexes, where children feel desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy towards the same-sex parent.
168
Name and define one of Bronfenbrenner's **ecological systems**.
**Microsystem**: The immediate environment in which a person directly interacts, such as family, school, and peers.
## Footnote
Bronfenbrenner's model emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, known as ecological systems, to understand their development.
169
# True or False:
Longitudinal studies are more prone to cohort effects than cross-sectional studies.
False
## Footnote
Cross-sectional studies, which analyze data from a population at a specific point in time, are more susceptible to cohort effects, as they may reflect differences due to historical or cultural factors rather than developmental changes.
170
What is **cultural fair testing** in psychology?
It's the design of tests that minimize cultural bias and are equally fair to individuals from diverse backgrounds.
## Footnote
Culturally fair tests aim to measure intelligence or abilities without favoring any particular cultural or socioeconomic group, often by avoiding language or content unfamiliar to some test-takers.
171
List one key **ethical consideration** in psychological research.
Informed consent
## Footnote
Informed consent is crucial in psychological research to ensure that participants are fully aware of the nature of the study, any potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time, thereby protecting their autonomy and well-being.
