Cognitive: Thinking

Question 1

What type of thinking is used to figure out the solution to a math problem?

Answer 1

convergent thinking

Convergent thinking is used when there is one solution to a particular problem.

Question 2

What type of thinking is used when figuring out alternate sources of energy?

Answer 2

divergent thinking

Divergent thinking is used if there are multiple solutions to a problem or if there is a dissenter to a particular way of thinking.

Question 3

What is a term used for the understanding of how things generally go?

Answer 3

scripts

For a birthday party, a script might include decorations, attendees, cake, etc.

Question 4

Fill in the blank:

________ are the way we represent the connectedness of two or more items or ideas.

Answer 4

Concepts

ex: a coat is an item of clothing with long sleeves that opens in the front and keeps us warm

Question 5

Why would psychologists be interested in algorithms?

Answer 5

Algorithms are one way of solving problems, which is a way to study how the brain works.

Algorithms are an exhaustive problem solving search that go through every possible answer in order to find the correct one. The harder the problem, the more impractical it is for our brains to use algorithms.

Question 6

What is a heuristic? What are its benefits and drawbacks?

Answer 6

It is a way of solving a problem that uses common sense, rules of thumb, or educated guesses. It is not always accurate, but it is faster than an algorithm.

Question 7

What is an availability heuristic?

Answer 7

When you use an availability heuristic, you judge the first things that come to mind as the most important because they are more salient.

For example, people may think air travel is more dangerous than car travel because they see more news stories about plane crashes than car accidents, so plane crashes come to mind first.

Question 8

How can a representativeness heuristic lead to stereotyping?

Answer 8

Representativeness heuristics take information we have already conceptualized with prototypes and apply them to all situations to make a judgment.

If your prototype of a specific group is negative because of one person in that group, it could lead to incorrectly stereotyping the whole group.

Question 9

How might the idea of functional fixedness hinder innovation?

Answer 9

Functional fixedness is our tendency to see objects or concepts as they were learned. This cements them in place in our minds so we may be unable to find alternative, innovative uses for these objects or concepts.

Question 10

Describe the James-Lange theory of emotion.

Answer 10

This theory asserts that changes in physiological states occur before and result in emotion.

Question 11

Which theory of emotion, as a response to the James-Lange theory, asserts that the physiological response to emotion and the experience of emotion occur simultaneously in response to emotion-provoking stimuli?

Answer 11

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

(Emergency theory)

Question 12

What are the two factors of Schachter and Singer’s two factor theory of emotion?

Answer 12

1. Physiological arousal
2. How we cognitively label the experience of arousal.

Question 13

What is top-down processing?

Answer 13

This uses information, particularly larger concepts, we already have in our brains to fill in gaps in the things we sense. It can frequently overrule the more primitive areas of our brains.

Question 14

What is it called when we build a perception of an object by mentally compiling all of its features?

Answer 14

bottom-up processing or feature analysis

This is slower than top-down processing, but is more thorough and less prone to mistakes, and is data driven.

Question 15

Why does it take longer to name the color of these words than if the colors and the words were congruent?

Answer 15

The stroop effect causes a semantic interference between the color we see and the word we read, slowing response time.

Question 16

What is “thinking about thinking” known as?

Answer 16

metacognition

Question 17

John was the only one in the room when the lamp got broken. Therefore, John must have broken the lamp.

What kind of thought does this exemplify?

Answer 17

This is an example of deductive reasoning. There is a specific conclusion to be gleaned from the information available.

Question 18

How does deductive reasoning differ from inductive reasoning?

Answer 18

With deductive reasoning, information leads to a single conclusion. With inductive reasoning, the specificity of information leads to larger, more general rules.

Question 19

What are some logical reasoning errors?

Answer 19

• confirmation bias
• semantic effect
• atmosphere effect

Question 20

If your mother accuses you of something and then uses every aspect of your arguments and body language to prove that you did it, what logical reasoning error is she using?

Answer 20

She is employing confirmation bias, which looks for any piece of evidence (even if it’s wrong) to confirm a belief or solution to a problem.

Question 21

How might the atmosphere effect prevent you from proper reasoning?

Answer 21

The atmosphere effect is a logical reasoning error in which the phrasing of information affects how a conclusion is made.

Ex. “how fast was the car going when it bumped into the pole?” vs. “how fast was the car going when it slammed into the pole?”

Question 22

In psychological terms, what is the “eureka!” moment called, when a new perspective comes from the information available?

Answer 22

insight

Question 23

How is cognitive processing often measured?

Answer 23

It is measured by reaction time, which is also called latency.

Question 24

Who suggested that people can say two similar items or concepts are related more quickly than they can say two dissimilar items or concepts are unrelated?

Answer 24

Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins

They suggest that semantically similar items or concepts are grouped together in memory.

Question 25

Why is it that **Allan Collins and Ross Quinlan** suggest it takes longer to find a link between loosely associated stimuli than closely associated stimuli?

Answer 25

They believe that we have cognitive semantic hierarchies that we **search** when finding connections. The longer it takes to determine the **relatedness** of the stimuli, the farther apart they must be in the hierarchy.

Question 26

What is the term for the search of **cognitive semantic hierarchies**?

Answer 26

parallel distributive processing or connectionism

Question 27

How does **semantic priming** reduce latency in word-recognition tasks?

Answer 27

It exposes a participant to a particular word without their awareness, and is more quickly recalled later because it has been **activated** in the **semantic hierarchy**.

Question 28

What is the **term** for processing that is contained within a larger organizational process, thus happening without additional cognitive effort?

Answer 28

automatic processing

Question 29

How can information processing be **measured** while a participant is reading?

Answer 29

Eye movements and gaze durations.

Question 30

What are saccades?

Answer 30

Movements of the eye between **fixation points**.

Question 31

How do **hypotheses** inform our ideas of concepts?

Answer 31

Hypotheses allow us to test our existing ideas of **relatedness**, helping us to form **new** concepts or **strengthen** the concepts we already have.

Question 32

How can a **mental set** help or hinder the attempt to solve a problem?

Answer 32

A mental set can be a good framework for solving future problems because it uses **existing notions**, but it can hinder problem solving by introducing rigidity and refusal to look at other possible ways to reach an outcome.

Question 33

What is an **organized pattern of ideas**, framing the way we see the world called?

Answer 33

schema ## Footnote Schemas (or schemata) are formed by existing understandings of how the world works. New information either fits into the existing shema or changes it.

Question 34

In psychology, what are **prototypes**?

Answer 34

These are the most representative characteristics of an item or concept.

Question 35

When solving a problem, what is the name given to the entirety of solutions possible?

Answer 35

problem space

Question 36

Who created the "**logical theorist**" and the "general problem solver" and what did they do?

Answer 36

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, and they were **computer simulation models**, which were designed to solve problems the way a human would.

Question 37

Though hotly contested, what is a simple definition for **intelligence**?

Answer 37

The capacity to perform better in an environment by applying knowledge.

Question 38

What is base-rate fallacy?

Answer 38

Using personal beliefs or **stereotypical** attitudes instead of numerical data to form a conclusion.

Question 39

Robert Sternberg believed there were three different **aspects to intelligence**. Name them.

Answer 39

1. **componential**: test performance 2. **experimental**: creativity 3. **contextual**: street smarts

Question 40

What are the seven defined intelligences in Howard Gardner's **theory of multiple intelligences**?

Answer 40

1. linguistic ability 2. logical-mathematical ability 3. spatial ability 4. musical ability 5. bodily-kinesthetic ability 6. interpersonal ability 7. intrapersonal ability ## Footnote Western IQ tests only test linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities.

Question 41

What was the name given to Louis Thurstone's **seven abilities of intelligence**?

Answer 41

primary mental abilities

Question 42

What were the two types of **mental abilities** Raymond Cattell theorized?

Answer 42

1. fluid intelligence 2. crystallized intelligence

Question 43

# Fill in the blank: In our youth, \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence increases as we learn to solve new problems. As we age, we have more \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence, stemming from schooling or experience.

Answer 43

fluid; crystallized

Question 44

What is the **main idea** behind the prototype theory of categorization?

Answer 44

Prototype theory suggests that people categorize objects by **comparing** them to an internal 'prototype,' which is an average representation of the category's members. ## Footnote Prototype theory helps explain how individuals can quickly identify category membership based on resemblance to a central example, rather than a set of defining features.

Question 45

# True or False: Exemplar theory involves comparing new stimuli to multiple examples stored in memory.

Answer 45

True ## Footnote Exemplar theory posits that people categorize objects by comparing them to specific instances they have encountered, rather than to a single prototype or a set of defining features.

Question 46

# Fill in the blank: The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ effect refers to how some category members are more easily identified as belonging to a category than others.

Answer 46

typicality ## Footnote Typicality effects indicate that people are faster and more accurate in categorizing items that are typical of a category, as these items closely match the mental representation or prototype of that category.

Question 47

List the three main levels of **category hierarchies**.

Answer 47

* Superordinate * Basic * Subordinate ## Footnote Category hierarchies are structured from broad to specific. The basic level is typically the most informative and preferred in everyday communication, providing a balance of detail and generality.

Question 48

What is the main **difference** between visual and spatial mental imagery?

Answer 48

**Visual imagery** involves picturing the appearance of an object, while **spatial imagery** involves understanding how objects are arranged in space. ## Footnote Visual imagery is often linked to processing a scene or object in detail, such as colors and shapes, whereas spatial imagery involves understanding spatial relationships, like navigation or puzzle-solving.

Question 49

# True or False: Mental imagery can aid in problem-solving and memory enhancement.

Answer 49

True ## Footnote Mental imagery helps in problem-solving by allowing individuals to visualize steps and outcomes, and it enhances memory by creating vivid associations that are easier to recall.

Question 50

Who conducted the seminal studies on **mental rotation**, and what was the key finding?

Answer 50

**Shepard & Metzler**; They found that the time it takes to mentally rotate an object is proportional to the angle of rotation. ## Footnote Their study demonstrated that mental rotation involves a spatial process analogous to physically rotating objects, supporting the idea of spatial imagery.

Question 51

# Fill in the blank: Shepard & Metzler's experiments showed that mental rotation involves a \_\_\_\_\_\_ process.

Answer 51

spatial ## Footnote The experiments highlighted that mental rotation is not just a visual phenomenon but involves understanding spatial relationships as one would with physical objects.

Question 52

What is **means-ends analysis** in problem-solving?

Answer 52

A process that involves **identifying the differences** between the current state and the goal state, and then creating **subgoals** to reduce these differences. ## Footnote Means-ends analysis is a critical problem-solving strategy that helps break down complex problems into manageable parts by focusing on reducing the gap between the current situation and the desired outcome.

Question 53

# Fill in the blank: Subgoaling is a technique where one creates intermediate steps called \_\_\_\_\_\_ to reach a final goal.

Answer 53

subgoals ## Footnote Subgoaling is effective in tackling large problems by setting smaller, achievable targets that lead incrementally to the overall objective.

Question 54

# True or False: Forward planning involves starting from the end goal and working backward to determine the necessary steps.

Answer 54

False ## Footnote Forward planning starts from the initial state and progresses toward the goal. In contrast, backward planning starts with the goal and works backward to determine the steps needed to achieve it.

Question 55

# Define: metacognitive knowledge

Answer 55

Awareness and understanding of one's **own thought** processes. ## Footnote Metacognitive knowledge involves knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or problem-solving. It includes understanding your cognitive processes like attention, memory, and comprehension.

Question 56

# True or False: Monitoring processes in metacognition involve evaluating the effectiveness of one's learning strategies.

Answer 56

True ## Footnote Monitoring processes involve checking and assessing one's cognitive activities in learning. This can include self-testing or evaluating whether the strategies used are effective in understanding and remembering information.

Question 57

# Fill in the blank: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ processes refer to the modifications one makes in their strategies to improve learning outcomes.

Answer 57

Control ## Footnote Control processes involve the decisions and changes one makes to adapt or alter strategies based on the monitoring results. This can include changing study methods or allocating more time to difficult topics.

Question 58

What is the **'value function'** according to Kahneman & Tversky's Prospect Theory?

Answer 58

* Concave for gains * Convex for losses * Steeper for losses than gains ## Footnote The value function in Prospect Theory demonstrates how people perceive gains and losses differently, with losses having a larger psychological impact than an equivalent amount of gains. This asymmetry is crucial for understanding decision-making under risk.

Question 59

# True or False: According to Kahneman & Tversky, people are more sensitive to losses than to gains.

Answer 59

True ## Footnote This concept is known as 'loss aversion.' It suggests that the pain of losing is psychologically more powerful than the pleasure of gaining, influencing decision-making processes significantly.

Question 60

How do framing effects influence choices in **decision-making** scenarios?

Answer 60

* Presentation of options as gains or losses * The context in which information is presented ## Footnote Framing effects illustrate how the same decision can lead to different outcomes depending on whether the information is framed positively (as gains) or negatively (as losses), highlighting the importance of context in decision-making.

Question 61

What is the **Flynn** effect?

Answer 61

The Flynn effect refers to the observed **rise in IQ** scores over time across the world. ## Footnote Named after James R. Flynn, the Flynn effect suggests that IQ scores have increased approximately 3 points per decade globally, attributed to factors like improved nutrition, education, and complex environmental demands.

Question 62

# True or False: Test bias occurs when a test systematically disadvantages a particular group.

Answer 62

True ## Footnote Test bias implies that the test's validity is compromised for certain groups, leading to unfair disadvantages based on cultural, linguistic, or socioeconomic differences rather than actual differences in the trait being measured.

Question 63

List three factors that can affect the **reliability** of a psychological test.

Answer 63

* Test-retest reliability * Inter-rater reliability * Internal consistency ## Footnote Reliability refers to the consistency of a test's results over time. Test-retest reliability measures stability over time, inter-rater reliability assesses the agreement between different raters, and internal consistency evaluates the consistency of results across items within the test.