Cognitive: Language

Question 1

Define:

phonemes

Answer 1

These are basic speech sounds with no meaning.

ex. sh, ph, ee

Question 2

Define:

morphemes

Answer 2

These are the smallest carrier of meaning, phonemes combined to create meaning.

Question 3

Define:

phrase

Answer 3

These are words grouped together to create a single unit of syntax in a sentence.

Question 4

Define:

syntax

Answer 4

An element of grammar that dictates the rules for phrase/sentence construction.

Question 5

Define:

grammar

Answer 5

These are rules for using a given language, interrelating morphemes and syntax.

Question 6

Define:

morphology

Answer 6

These are grammar rules, understanding of how to group morphemes.

Question 7

Define:

prosody

Answer 7

The perception of tone inflections, accents, and emotional aspects of language that carry meaning.

Question 8

Who is considered the most important person in psycholinguistics?

Answer 8

Noam Chomsky

Question 9

What did Chomsky’s transformational grammar differentiate?

Answer 9

The surface structure and the deep structure of language.

Question 10

Fill in the blank.

You can change the ________ structure of a sentence without altering the _____ structure, or the meaning.

Answer 10

surface; deep

Question 11

Why would Chomsky say it is easier for children to learn a foreign language than adults?

Answer 11

Because children have an inborn “language acquisition device”, they are able to adapt to and incorporate new grammar rules into their own speech production.

Question 12

What is occurring when a child says “I hided the toy from Bobby”?

Answer 12

overgeneralization or overregularization

Children often use previously learned grammar rules for all situations, even if they are incorrect. Improper conjugation of verb tenses is a common example of this.

Question 13

A child who calls every fuzzy, four-legged object a kitty is exhibiting what?

Answer 13

overextension

Children frequently associate words with characteristics of an object without logically understanding the finer distinctions, for example the ones between kitties and doggies.

Question 14

“Me want cookie” is an example of what type of speech?

Answer 14

telegraphic speech

A way to remember this is that the speech lacks the flourish of a written letter, but is instead barebones and only conveys necessity, like a telegraph.

Question 15

This type of speech is comprised of one word that conveys the meaning of an entire sentence.

Answer 15

holophrastic speech
The one-word sentences are called holophrases.

Question 16

Who acquires language more quickly and accurately, boys or girls?

Answer 16

girls

Question 17

Are children raised in bilingual environments faster or slower to learn language?

Answer 17

slower

Question 18

What parts of speech do children produce first?

Answer 18

Nouns first, then verbs.

Telegraphic speech usually contains one of both, like “mama go.”

Question 19

Describe language in children by year from one to four.

Answer 19

1. first spoken word/words
2. 50+ word vocabulary, typically telegraphic phrases
3. larger vocabulary (roughly 1000 words), but frequent grammatical errors
4. grammar mistakes like overregularization are uncommon

Question 20

What was suggested by Benjamin Whorf’s research on the Hopi language?

Answer 20

Perspectives among a given culture are informed by language itself. This is also known as the Whorfian hypothesis (or the linguistic relativity hypothesis).

Simply put, this hypothesis states that language determines thought.

Question 21

What did Roger Brown find regarding children’s language acquisition?

Answer 21

He found that children improve their understanding of language and grammar as they hypothesize about syntax and synthesize those hypotheses with their real-world language experience.

Question 22

What did Katherine Nelson find regarding children’s language acquisition?

Answer 22

Children learn language more rapidly after the onset of speech production (active speech) than they do while simply hearing it.

Question 23

Whose research on Ebonics found that it was not incorrect English, but rather a dialect with its own complex internal structure?

Answer 23

William Labov

Question 24

According to Vygotsky and Luria, do words mean the same thing to all people?

Answer 24

No. They found that word meanings are different for different people, affected by life experience.

Question 25

How did Charles Osgood's **semantic differential charts** support Vygotsky and Luria's theory?

Answer 25

They showed that people with **related interests and backgrounds** defined words **similarly**. As Vygotsky and Luria posited, **different groups** of people have **different understandings** of word connotations.

Question 26

# Fill in the blank. Where language acquisition was concerned, Chomsky is a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.

Answer 26

nativist ## Footnote He argued that the capacity to acquire language was innate, rather than learned.

Question 27

What is the learning theory of language?

Answer 27

Learning theory proposes that we learn language through **conditioning and modeling**. B.F. Skinner was a learning theorist.

Question 28

What is the **cognitive developmental theory** of language?

Answer 28

This is the belief that toward the end of the sensorimotor stage of development, children develop a capacity for **symbolic thinking**, which allows language acquisition as the child's cognitive capacities increase. **Jean Piaget** was a proponent of this theory.

Question 29

How does being raised **bilingual** (native bilingual) impact executive functioning?

Answer 29

People who are native bilingual have to learn to **inhibit responses** in whichever language they are not using at any given time. Resarch indicates that being native bilingual confers the benefit of developing **better executive functioning** than monolinguals have.

Question 30

What is the primary **difference** between semantics and pragmatics in linguistics?

Answer 30

**Semantics** deals with the meaning of words and sentences, while **pragmatics** focuses on how context influences meaning. ## Footnote Semantics examines the literal meaning, whereas pragmatics considers the speaker's intentions and the listener's interpretation based on context.

Question 31

Define **lexical ambiguity** and name its two types.

Answer 31

Lexical ambiguity occurs when a word has **multiple meanings**. The two types are: * Polysemy * Homonymy ## Footnote Polysemy refers to a single word with multiple related meanings (e.g., 'bank' as a financial institution or riverbank), while homonymy involves words that sound alike or are spelled alike but have different, unrelated meanings (e.g., 'bat' the animal and 'bat' used in sports).

Question 32

# True or false: In semantic roles, the agent is always the subject of a sentence.

Answer 32

False ## Footnote The agent is the entity performing an action, but it is not always the grammatical subject. For example, in passive constructions like 'The cake was eaten by the child,' 'the child' is the agent, but not the subject.

Question 33

What are **semantic roles**, and why are they important?

Answer 33

Semantic roles, like agent and patient, describe the function of entities in an event or action, helping to **clarify** who is doing what to whom. ## Footnote Understanding semantic roles aids in sentence comprehension and disambiguation, helping to interpret the meaning and relationships between elements within a sentence.

Question 34

# Fill in the blank. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ networks are cognitive frameworks that help in organizing the relationships between concepts.

Answer 34

Semantic ## Footnote Semantic networks are used to represent knowledge in the mind, showing how different concepts are connected. They are crucial for understanding how information is stored and retrieved.

Question 35

Explain the concept of **thematic relations** in semantics.

Answer 35

This describe how different parts of a sentence, like subject and object, **relate to the action** or state described by the verb. ## Footnote Examples include agent (doer of the action), patient (receiver of the action), and instrument (means by which the action is performed). These relations help in understanding sentence structure and meaning.

Question 36

What is categorical perception of speech sounds?

Answer 36

Categorical perception is the tendency to **perceive speech sounds** as belonging to distinct categories, despite variations in the sound. ## Footnote This phenomenon allows people to distinguish between phonemes more clearly, which is crucial for understanding spoken language.

Question 37

# True or false: Top-down processing is driven by sensory input.

Answer 37

False ## Footnote Top-down processing is guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and context, unlike bottom-up processing, which is driven directly by sensory input.

Question 38

# Fill in the blank. Speech segmentation involves detecting \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in a continuous stream of speech.

Answer 38

word boundaries ## Footnote This process is essential for understanding spoken language, as it helps listeners determine where one word ends and another begins, despite the lack of clear pauses in natural speech.

Question 39

What is phonemic restoration?

Answer 39

Phonemic restoration is the brain's ability to **fill in missing phonemes** based on context. ## Footnote This process demonstrates how the brain uses context and prior knowledge to maintain the perception of a complete auditory message, even when parts are missing.

Question 40

Describe the concept of **coarticulation** in speech perception.

Answer 40

Coarticulation occurs when the articulation of one speech sound **overlaps** with the next. ## Footnote This overlapping causes variations in how sounds are produced and perceived, yet listeners can still understand speech due to the brain's perceptual mechanisms.

Question 41

What does the motor theory of speech perception propose?

Answer 41

The motor theory suggests that speech perception involves the listener's motor system simulating the speaker's articulatory movements. ## Footnote This theory emphasizes the relationship between speech production and perception, proposing that understanding spoken language involves accessing one's own motor representations of speech sounds.

Question 42

What are the two **pathways** in dual-route models of reading?

Answer 42

* Lexical route * Sublexical route ## Footnote The dual-route model explains how we process written words. The lexical route involves recognizing whole words, while the sublexical route involves decoding words letter by letter.

Question 43

# True or false: Grapheme-phoneme correspondence is crucial for sublexical reading.

Answer 43

True ## Footnote Grapheme-phoneme correspondence involves matching letters (graphemes) with their sounds (phonemes), which is essential for decoding unfamiliar words in the sublexical route.

Question 44

What **role** does orthographic analysis play in reading?

Answer 44

It helps in **recognizing** the **written form** of words. ## Footnote Orthographic analysis involves the visual recognition of word patterns and spelling, which aids in efficient and accurate reading, especially in the lexical route.

Question 45

Name a common comprehension strategy for reading.

Answer 45

Making inferences ## Footnote Comprehension strategies like inferencing help readers connect the text with prior knowledge, allowing them to understand and predict information that isn't explicitly stated.

Question 46

# Fill in the blank. \_\_\_\_\_\_ is a common reading disorder characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition

Answer 46

Dyslexia ## Footnote Dyslexia often involves problems with phonological processing and decoding, affecting reading fluency and comprehension.

Question 47

How does **morphological analysis** support reading comprehension?

Answer 47

By understanding the **structure and meaning** of words. ## Footnote Morphological analysis involves recognizing roots and affixes, which helps readers deduce the meanings of complex words and enhances vocabulary and comprehension.

Question 48

# Define: simultaneous bilingualism

Answer 48

Learning **two** languages from birth. ## Footnote Simultaneous bilinguals often develop both languages with similar proficiency, as they are exposed to both languages in a natural setting, usually involving family members speaking different languages.

Question 49

# Define: sequential bilingualism

Answer 49

Learning a **second** language after already establishing a first language. ## Footnote Sequential bilinguals typically start learning a second language after the age of three, often due to formal education or relocation to a new language environment.

Question 50

# True or false: Code-switching is a sign of confusion in bilinguals.

Answer 50

False ## Footnote Code-switching is a natural and proficient behavior in bilinguals, reflecting their ability to switch between languages depending on context, audience, or social setting.

Question 51

# Define: code-switching

Answer 51

**Alternating** between two or more languages in a conversation. ## Footnote Bilinguals use code-switching for various reasons, such as to convey a concept more effectively, to fit in with a group, or to express a particular identity.

Question 52

List two potential cognitive **advantages** of bilingualism.

Answer 52

* Enhanced executive function * Improved cognitive flexibility ## Footnote Bilingual individuals often exhibit stronger cognitive abilities, such as multitasking and problem-solving skills, due to regular practice in managing two language systems.

Question 53

# Define: language interference

Answer 53

The influence of one language on another in bilingual speakers. ## Footnote Language interference can manifest as pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary errors when elements of one language affect the use of another, often occurring in the early stages of language acquisition.

Question 54

What are the primary components of **paralanguage**?

Answer 54

* Tone * Pitch * Rate ## Footnote Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to convey emotion and modify meaning. It includes vocal qualities such as tone, pitch, and rate that can influence how a message is perceived.

Question 55

# True or false: Body language can convey emotions more accurately than spoken words.

Answer 55

True ## Footnote Gestures and body language often communicate emotions more directly than words, as they can express feelings that individuals might not be able to articulate verbally. This makes body language a crucial component of understanding interpersonal communication.

Question 56

Which **facial feature** is most commonly used to interpret emotions?

Answer 56

eyes ## Footnote The eyes are often referred to as the 'windows to the soul' and play a key role in expressing and interpreting emotions. Eye gaze can indicate interest, attention, and even deception.

Question 57

What does the study of **proxemics** focus on?

Answer 57

The study of **personal space and spatial relationships** in communication ## Footnote Proxemics examines how physical distance between individuals affects communication. Different cultures have varying norms regarding personal space, which can influence social interactions.

Question 58

# Fill in the blank. \_\_\_\_\_\_ involves the use of touch in communication.

Answer 58

Haptics ## Footnote Haptics refers to the study of touch as a means of communication. Touch can convey a wide range of messages, from affection to dominance, and is interpreted differently across cultural contexts.

Question 59

Name one way **contextual cues** can influence a conversation.

Answer 59

* Setting * Relationship between communicators * Social norms ## Footnote Contextual cues such as the physical environment, the relationship between communicators, and the social norms of a situation can significantly affect how a conversation is interpreted and understood.

Question 60

What is the **critical-period hypothesis** in language acquisition?

Answer 60

It suggests there is a **specific time window** during which language acquisition occurs most efficiently. ## Footnote This hypothesis posits that if language exposure doesn't occur within this period, typically believed to end around puberty, it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve native-like proficiency.

Question 61

# True or false: Connectionist models of language emphasize rule-based learning.

Answer 61

False ## Footnote Connectionist models focus on learning language through pattern recognition and statistical learning, rather than rule-based systems. These models simulate neural networks that adjust connections based on language input.

Question 62

# Fill in the blank. Aphasia is a condition often studied in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to understand language processing in the brain.

Answer 62

neurolinguistics ## Footnote Aphasia is a language disorder typically caused by brain damage affecting communication abilities. Studying aphasia provides insights into the neurological underpinnings of language processing.

Question 63

List two key features of usage-based models of language.

Answer 63

* Emphasis on frequency of exposure * Reliance on linguistic input and context ## Footnote Usage-based models argue that language learning is driven by exposure to language in context, with frequent and meaningful interactions shaping linguistic competence.

Question 64

What is one goal of **educational interventions** in language development?

Answer 64

To **enhance language skills** through targeted activities and support, especially for individuals with language learning difficulties. ## Footnote Educational interventions aim to improve vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills by providing structured learning environments and personalized strategies.