PSYC 2015 Ch 09: Human Development Flashcards
(79 cards)
1
Q
developmental psychology
A
the study of how behavior changes over the life span
2
Q
gene-environment interaction
A
situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed
3
Q
epigenetics
A
a field that examines how environmental influences affect the expression of genes
4
Q
cross-sectional design
A
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
5
Q
- cohort effect
A
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the same sample growing up at the same time
6
Q
- longitudinal design
A
research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
7
Q
- zygote
A
fertilized egg
8
Q
- post hoc fallacy
A
(“after this”), dales assumption that because one even occurred before another event, it must have caused that event; within the context of psychology, refers to the reciprocal relationship between two variables or factors
9
Q
- blastocyte
A
ball of identical cells early in pregnancy that haven’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
10
Q
- fetus
A
an animal embryo in the later stages of development. In humans, the fetal period is from the end of the 8th week after fertilization until birth
11
Q
- teratogens
A
an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
12
Q
- fetal alcohol syndrome
A
condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations, and behavioral disorders; a disorder that can occur when a fetus is exposed to alcohol, and it’s caused by alcohol’s teratogenic effects
13
Q
- motor behavior
A
bodily motion that occurs as result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles
14
Q
- Michael Hermanussen
A
“mini growth spurts” occur every 30-55 days in children ages 3 to 16, followed by lulls during which growth was much slower
15
Q
- puberty
A
(also, sexual maturation): the achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce
16
Q
- primary sex characteristics
A
a physical feature, such as the reproductive organs and genitals, that distinguishes sexes
17
Q
- secondary sex characteristics
A
a sex-differentiating characteristic that does not relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men
18
Q
- menarche
A
start of menstruation
19
Q
- spermarche
A
boys’ first ejaculation
20
Q
- menopause
A
the termination of menstruation, marking the end of a woman’s reproduction potential
21
Q
- Sensorimotor
A
stage in Piaget’s theory characterized by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally (birth-2yo)
22
Q
- cognitive development
A
study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, and remember
23
Q
- Preoperational
A
stage in Piaget’s theory characterized the ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations with them
24
Q
Concrete Operations
A
stage in Piaget’s theory characterized by the ability to perform mental operations on physical events only
25
Formal Operations
stage in Piaget’s theory characterized by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now
26
* assimilation
Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into current knowledge structures; Fitting new information into existing mental schemas
27
* accommodation (cognitive)
Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience; already existing structures (schema) are changed to accommodate new information
28
Vygotsky's social development theory
asserts that a child's cognitive development and learning ability can be guided and mediated by their social interactions. His theory (also called Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory) states that learning is a crucially social process as opposed to an independent journey of discovery.
29
* scaffolding
Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children’s learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
30
* zone of proximal development
a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction (Vygotsky)
31
* theory of mind
ability to reason about what other people know or believe (coined by Premack and Woodruff, 1978)
32
* operant conditioning
(also, operant learning) the process in which behavioral change (i.e., learning) occurs as a function of the consequences of behavior. Examples are teaching a dog to do tricks and rewarding behavioral change in a misbehaving child (see behavior therapy).
33
* babbling
intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning
34
* one-word stage
early period of language development when children use single-word phrases to convey an entire thought
35
* Susan Goldin-Meadow
research primarily focuses on the role of hand gestures in thought and communication, particularly exploring how people, even those born blind, naturally use gestures to convey meaning beyond spoken language, revealing insights into their cognitive processes, and demonstrating that gestures can even actively shape our thinking; her key findings include the creation of "homesigns" by deaf children without exposure to sign language and the presence of gesturing in blind individuals who have never seen gestures being made
36
Elissa Newport
Less is More Hypothesis--children are better able to learn languages than adults because they have fewer cognitive resources available to them
37
Betty Hart and Todd Risley
study result "30 Million Word Gap"
38
* generative
allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways; idea that humans can create an infinite number of sentences and phrases from a finite amount of grammatical or linguistic knowledge
39
* nativist
account of language acquisition that suggests children are born with some basic knowledge of how language works
40
* Noam Chomsky (re: language)
theory of universal grammar; linguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology; proposed that linguistics, or the study of language, should be included in the field of cognitive psychology since it involves mental processes
41
language acquisition device
hypothetical organ in the brain in which nativist believe knowledge of syntax resides
42
* Kelly Mix
researcher primarily focused on the development of number concepts and mathematical reasoning in young children, particularly investigating how infants and preschoolers begin to understand quantity and numerical concepts before formal instruction, often studying the role of spatial reasoning and visual cues in early math development; her research highlights the importance of cognitive science principles in improving children's learning in mathematics ; research on number concepts, mathematical reasoning, and symbol grounding
43
* stranger anxiety
a fear of strangers developing at 8 or 9 months of age (continues to increase, then declines b/t 12-15 months)
44
* temperament
basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin (in infancy 40% easy, 10% difficult, 15% slow-to-warm-up Thomas & Chess 1977)
45
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess (1977):
3 major temperament styles; temperament is influenced by nine temperament traits: activity, regularity, initial reaction, adaptability, intensity, mood, distractibility, persistence-attention span, and sensory threshold
46
* Jerome Kagan
behavioral inhibition—a temperamental predisposition characterized by restraint in engaging with the world combined with a tendency to scrutinize the environment for potential threats and to avoid or withdraw from unfamiliar situations or people. (10% behaviorally inhibited/ 20% uninhibited/ 70% Middling.) It is often related to social anxiety and a predisposition for greater physiological reactivity to novel situations. [first described by U.S. psychologists Jerome Kagan and J. Steven Reznick
47
* attachment
the emotional bond between a human infant or a young nonhuman animal and its parent figure or caregiver; it is developed as a step in establishing a feeling of security and demonstrated by calmness while in the parent’s or caregiver’s presence. Attachment also denotes the tendency to form such bonds with certain other individuals in infancy as well as the tendency in adulthood to seek emotionally supportive social relationships.
48
* Konrad Lorenz
Nobel prize; term “imprinting”— Imprinting: a simple yet profound and highly effective learning process that occurs during a critical period in the life of some animals; newly hatched chicks tended to follow the first moving object, human or animal, that caught their attention. Observed by Spalding. Term introduced by Konrad Lorenz.
49
* John Bowlby
psychiatrist, psychoanalyst; Bowlby's Evolutionary Theory of Attachment Bowlby defined attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings." His ethological theory of attachment suggests that infants have an innate need to form an attachment bond with a caregiver
50
* Harry Harlow
“contact comfort”; American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development
51
* contact comfort
positive emotions afforded by touch; the positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close contact with soft materials. (originates from Harry Harlow’s rhesus monkeys experiments)
52
* Mary Ainsworth
developmental psychologist; Strange Situation; development of attachment theory
53
Diana Baumrind
developmental and clinical psychologist; Pillar Theory: classifications of 3 parenting styles; two key dimensions: parental responsiveness and parental demandingness; theorized that children's behavior can be attributed to the specific parenting style they experienced in their homes
54
* Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin
added neglectful parenting style; aka uninvolved, aka rejecting—neglecting
55
* Heinz Hartmann
psychiatrist and psychoanalyst; average expectable environment; founder/principal representative of ego psychology
56
o average expectable environment
environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline; a range of environmental conditions that are expected to promote normal development in a species
57
* self-control
ability to inhibit an impulse to act
58
o Donald Winnicott (1958)—
pediatrician and psychoanalyst; Winnicott believed one of the developmental hurdles for an infant to pass is the risk of being traumatized by being too aware too soon of how small and helpless they really are. A baby who is too aware of real-world dangers will be too anxious to learn optimally. A good-enough parent is well enough attuned and responsive to protect the baby with an illusion of omnipotence, or being all-powerful. For example, a well-cared-for baby usually does not feel hungry for very long before being fed. Winnicott thought the parents' quick response of feeding the baby gives the baby a sense that whenever she's hungry, food appears as if by magic, as if the baby herself makes food appear just by being hungry. To feel this powerful, Winnicott thought, allowed a baby to feel confident, calm and curious, and able to learn without having to invest a lot of energy into defenses
59
* gender identity
individual’s sense of being male, female, or another gender
60
* gender role
a set of behaviors that tend to be associated with being male or female
61
* Bullying
social or physical aggression that is perpetuated repeatedly over time by individuals with greater power or status on individuals with less power or status
62
* identity
our sense of who we are, as well as our life goals and priorities; an individual’s sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles. Identity involves a sense of continuity, or the feeling that one is the same person today that one was yesterday or last year (despite physical or other changes). Such a sense is derived from one’s body sensations; one’s body image; and the feeling that one’s memories, goals, values, expectations, and beliefs belong to the self. Also called personal identity
63
* Erik Erikson
psychoanalyst; 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development; Theory of Psychosocial Development; “identity crisis”=5th stage: identity vs role confusion; each stage a confrontation; psychosocial crisis
64
* Freud (re: identity):
theory of personality is based on the idea that human identity is made up of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud believed that most of what drives people is in their subconscious minds, and that a healthy personality is achieved when these three parts are in balance
65
* emerging adulthood
period of life b/t the ages of 18-25 when many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified
66
Piaget (theory of moral development):
suggested two main types of moral thinking: Heteronomous morality: rules as unchangeable and imposed by authorities (moral realism) Autonomous morality: rules are created by people and can be negotiated (moral relativism)
67
* Carol Gilligan (1982)
feminist, ethicist, and psychologist, best known for her work on ethical community and ethical relationships; accused Kohlberg of Sex Bias
68
* Midlife crisis
supposed phase of adulthood characterized by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
69
* Empty Nest Syndrome
alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home; actual increase in life satisfaction after empty nest
70
* Lawrence Kohlberg
theory of moral development: 3 levels--preconventional, conventional, and postconventional /6 stages-- Obedience and punishment, Self-interest, Interpersonal accord and conformity, Authority and maintaining social order, Social contract, Universal ethical principle
71
* Walter Mischel
psychologist specializing in personality theory and social psychology; Theory of Personality—an individual's behavior is influenced by two things- the specific attributes of a given situation and the manner in which he perceives the situation
72
* Strange Situation
(textbook: “Not especially reliable”): both the mother and a stranger are present before the mother leaves the child with a stranger. The child’s response to the mother’s departure and reaction when she returns are used to determine the child’s attachment style
73
* Dr. Benjamin Spock
a pediatrician and author who is best known for his book The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. His theories on child-rearing influenced generations of parents and are considered to have revolutionized child-rearing practices; first pediatrician to study psychoanalysis in an effort to understand children's needs and family dynamics
74
* homesign
system of signs invented by children who are deaf and born of hearing parents and therefore receive no language input; the gestures created by deaf children who have not been exposed to sign language (Susan Goldin-Meadow)
75
* Renee Baillargeon
object permanence; critic of Piaget; infants display object permanence around 4-5 months evidenced by eye tracking
76
* embryo
2nd to 8th week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs of the body take form
77
* prenatal
prior to birth
78
nature via nurture
tendency of individuals with certain genetic predispositions to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions
79
gene expression
activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development
