PSYCH EXAM V2 Flashcards
(182 cards)
1
Q
What is social cognition?
A
How we communicate and interact with others on many different levels everyday.
2
Q
What is person perception?
A
the different mental processes that we use to form impressions of other people and conclusions we come to based on their personal characteristics.
3
Q
What is a negative of person perception/social categorisation?
A
stereotyping
4
Q
What is anchoring bias?
A
when people rely heavily on the first information they find when making decisions and ignore all others
5
Q
What is attentional bias?
A
prioritising attention to certain information over others
you get braces and notice everyone else has them
6
Q
What is conformation bias?
A
only see/believe/seek evidence that confirms belief and ignores others that don’t
7
Q
what is false consensus bias
A
tendency to see our own behaviours as common or widespread
8
Q
what is the halo effect
A
where appearances influence beliefs in other qualities
9
Q
what is hindsight bias
A
the tendency to recall past events as being more predictable than they were
10
Q
what is misinformation bias
A
when new information of an event influence a memory of that event
11
Q
What is optimism bias
A
the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of experiencing positive rather than negative events
12
Q
What is self serving bias
A
attributing success to internal factors but failure to external factors
13
Q
What is the dunning Kruger effect
A
the tendency to overestimate ones knowledge on a certain topic
14
Q
What are examples of non-verbal communication?
A
facial expressions, eye contact, posture, gestures and movement
15
Q
What are attributions?
A
Inferences that we make about the cause of an event
16
Q
What are the two types of attributes?
A
personal/internal and situational/external
17
Q
What is a situational attribute?
A
When someone’s behaviour is explained in terms if the situation they are in
18
Q
What is a personal attribute?
A
When someone’s behaviour is explained in terms of their personal qualities
19
Q
What is fundamental attribution error?
A
the tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors, contributing a persons behaviour to internal rather than external factors.
20
Q
What is saliency bias?
A
The person tends to be more noticeable/salient than the situation
21
Q
What is just world belief?
A
Believing that the world is just and the person gets what they deserve
22
Q
What is actor observer bias?
A
the tendency to attribute our our own behaviour to external factors and others to internal factors
23
Q
What is self serving bias?
A
attribute our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors
24
Q
What is salience?
A
any personal characteristic that is distinctive, prominent, conspicuous or noticeable
25
What usually creates salience?
novelty, uniqueness or unexpectedness
26
What is social categorisation?
classifying people into different groups based on common characteristics
27
What is an attitude?
an evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issues (generally consistent and long lasting)
28
What are 5 features of an attitude?
- learnt through experiences
- different intensities
- long lasting
- can be changed
- we can be unaware until expressed
29
What is an acronym for the 3 components of the tri component model of attributes?
ABC - affective, behavioural and cognitive
30
What are the three components on the tri component model of attributes?
cognitive (beliefs), behavioural (actions) and affective (feelings)
31
What does the cognitive component represent?
the beliefs we have
32
What does the affective component represent?
emotional reactions/feelings we have
33
What does the behavioural component represent?
the way an attitude is expressed through actions
34
What needs to be present for an attitude to exsist?
all 3 attitude components (Cognitive, Behavioural and Affective)
35
Does the tri component model of attitudes always have to be consistent?
no
36
What does inconsistency between components often mean?
some components are stronger than others
36
How can attitudes get stronger?
more understanding on topic and how the information is gathered
37
Is an attitude stronger when information is gathered from direct experiences or indirectly?
direct experiences
37
What are limitations of the tri component model?
attitudes are not reflected by their behaviour
38
How can being around like minded people affect attitudes?
strengthens beliefs
39
What does accessibility mean in relation to attitudes?
strong thoughts, come to mind easily, thought about regularly, well known and stored in memory
40
What 2 components of the tri component model can be overpowered by social context/ the situation?
affective and cognitive
41
How does control affect the consistency of an attitude/behaviour?
more likely to match when people believe they have control over the behaviour
42
What is an ingroup?
Any group you belong to or identify with
43
What is an outgroup?
Any group you don't belong to or identify with
44
What are stereotypes?
a generalisation about the personal characteristics of members of a social group
45
Are stereotypes positive or negative?
both
46
What do stereotypes influence?
expectations or what some is like
47
How do stereotypes help us?
assist in knowing how to react with new people
48
What can stereotypes lead to?
social stigma
49
What is social stigma?
negative labels and attitudes associated with disapproval or rejection by others who aren't labelled the same
50
How does social stigma affect the stigmatised group?
feel shame, rejection, restrict ambitions and lower confidence and lower self-esteem
51
What is cognitive dissonance?
an unpleasant psychological state that occurs when people become aware that there is an inconsistency among their beliefs, attitudes or cognitions.
52
What are the 3 basic ways to reduce cognitive dissonance?
- change our dissonant cognition
- change the behaviour to suit dissonant cognition
- add new cognitions
53
How do we change our dissonant cognition reduce cognitive dissonance?
convince ourselves that our thinking is faulty or further justifying a belief
54
What is an example of adding new cognitions to reduce cognitive dissonance?
Not playing sport (dissonant cognition) because I have a bad knee (new justifying cognition)
55
What is cognitive bias?
a systematic error of judgment and faulty decision making.
56
What does cognitive bias lead to?
inaccurate or unreasonable conclusions
57
Why is cognitive bias considered to be a systematic error?
- due to biased thinking
- occurs naturally
- constant and predictable (not random)
58
What are examples of a cognitive bias?
actor-observer, anchoring, attentional, conformation, false-consensus, hindsight, misinformation, optimism and Dunning-Kruger
59
What is a heuristic?
a mental short cut we use to make quick judgments or quickly solve problems based on similar experiences
60
Are heuristics accurate?
not always
61
What can heuristics involve?
involve or lead to cognitive bias
62
What is an example of heuristics?
when playing monopoly a heuristic may be to purchase as many properties as possible, however it doesn't ensure winning but does increase one's chance of winning
63
What is an availability heuristic?
a judgment or heuristic that comes to mind quickly is deemed as significant, however, often incorrect
64
What is availability bias?
the tendency to think that examples of things we can quickly recall are more or less common than they actually are
65
What is representativeness heuristic?
categorising a person, object, event or other thing by judging how closely it matches our idea of a typical member of the category
66
What is affect heuristic?
making a judgment that is influenced by the emotion being experienced at the time
67
What aspects do we commonly judge during a first impression?
physical appearance, behaviour and facial expressions
68
Are first impressions lasting?
yes
69
What are the 3 main issues with stereotypes?
often inaccurate
can be harmful
leads to prejudice
70
How do we often view people in our in group?
positively and we develop loyalty easier
71
How do we often view people in our out group?
more negatively and its harder to develop loyalty
72
What is prejudice?
a negative attitude towards members of a group based solely on their membership of that group
73
What are 4 reasons for prejudice?
- believe they are superior
- believe they are different and don't belong
- believe they are more powerful and important
- fear they will become more powerful
74
What are the four prejudice types?
old fashioned prejudice, modern prejudice, explicit and implicit
75
What is old fashioned prejudice?
when the members of the majority group openly reject minority group member and their view towards minority group are obvious and recognisable to others
76
What is modern prejudice?
when the prejudice is more subtle/hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group
77
What is explicit prejudice?
prejudice that is consciously held, deliberately thought about, expressed by the person holding it and similar to old fashioned prejudice
78
What is implicit prejudice?
prejudice that is unconsciously held and the person holding it is unaware they hold it
79
What is discrimination?
positive and negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members
80
What are examples of discriminatory behaviour?
ignoring, bullying, excluding and violence
81
What are the two types of discrimination?
direct and indirect
82
What is direct discrimination?
when a person treats, or proposes to treat someone unfavourably due to a person characteristic protected by the law
83
What is indirect discrimination?
when treating everyone the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic
84
What is an example of indirect discrimination?
no hats -> discriminates against people who wear hijabs/head coverings
85
What does prejudice and discrimination lead to?
stigma
86
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?
prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is a behaviour
87
What does intergroup contact entail?
increasing contact between groups who are prejudiced against each other in order to reduce prejudice
88
What are the 3 conditions for intergroup contact to work?
- sustained contact
- mutual interdependence
- equal statuses
89
What is the contact hypothesis?
the assumption that close, prolonged contact leads to a re-evaluation of stereotypes about the other group, thus reducing stereotypes and prejudice
90
What is sustained contact?
ongoing, close contact
91
What is mutual interdependence?
when two different groups have contact with each other that make them dependent on each other
92
What does mutual interdependence achieve?
high likelihood that rivalry and negative stereotypes will be broken, thus reducing prejudice
93
What were the 3 phases of the robber's cave experiment?
- promote ingroup cohesion
- intergroup competitions
- intergroup cooperation
94
What is a superordinate goal?
a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group and overrides other existing goals each group might have
95
Why is equality of status important for the contact hypothesis/intergroup contact
if one group has more power or influence over the other they may begin to treat each other differently, thus not reducing prejudice
96
What are the 3 cognitive intervention steps?
- consciously deciding the attitude is wrong and reject it
- make the new beliefs an important part of themselves
- learn to suppress and replace
97
What is cognitive intervention?
changing the way someone thinks about prejudice
98
What is a social group?
any collection of two or more people who interact with and influence one another and who share a common purpose
99
What is culture?
a way of life of a particular society or community that is passed on to future generations and are the basis for everyday behaviours and practises
100
What are 6 examples of culture?
language, customs, beliefs, values, attitudes and norms
101
What is social influence?
the effects of the presence or actions of others, either real or imagines on the way people think, feel and behave
102
What is status?
the importance of an individuals position in a group as perceived by members of the group
103
What is power?
an individuals ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of another person
104
What are the 6 types of power?
RRELIC
Referent, Reward, Expert, Legitimate, Informational and Coercive
105
What is referent power?
a person individuals identify with or want to be liked by this person
106
What is reward power?
person who is able to give positive consequences or remove negative consequences
107
What is expert power?
person who has special knowledge and skills that are desirable
108
What is legitimate power?
person who has the authority to exercise consequence over those with lower power
109
What is informational power?
person who has resources or information that is useful and not available any where else
110
What is coercive power?
person who is able to give negative consequence or remove positive consequence
111
What are roles?
a behaviour adopted by an individual or assigned to them that influences the way in which they function or act in different situations or life
112
Are roles temporary or permanent?
both
113
What is role expectation?
the expectation that an individual will act in a way consistent with their role
114
What is the affect of roles on a person?
strong influence on behaviour and increase in power and status
115
What is an aggregation?
a collection of people in one location who have no social structure or organisation
116
What is obedience?
when we follow the commands of someone with authority
117
What is compliance?
changing behaviour in response to a request
118
What is conformity?
the tendency to adjust one's thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual, group or with social norms
119
What are the 3 factors that affect obedience?
social proximity, legitimacy of authority figures and group pressure
120
What is social proximity?
the closer the authority figure the more obedient
121
What is legitimacy of authority figures?
the more the individual believes they are offical the more obedient they are
122
What is group pressure?
the more people and authority figures there are the more obedient
123
What are the 7 factors that influence comformity?
DINGUS C
deindividualisation, informational influence, normative influence, group size, unanimity, social loafing and culture
124
How does deindividualisation affect conformity?
being deindividualised increases the chances for the individual to conform
125
How does informational influence affect conformity?
when there is uncertainty in what answer to chose the individual is likely to conform to others for an answer
126
How does normative influence affect conformity?
when everyone is doing the same thing the individual is more likely to conform to avoid being singled out and ridiculed
127
How does group size affect conformity?
the bigger the group giving the same response the more likely the individual is to conform and doubt themselves
128
How does unanimity affect conformity?
when everyone but the individual is in complete agreement the more likely the individual is to conform and doubt themselves
129
How does social loafing affect conformity?
the tendency for someone to put in less effort in a group making them conform
130
How does culture affect conformity?
individualist cultures tend to have lower levels of conformity
131
What are the two different types of obedience?
constructive and destructive
132
What is constructive obedience?
when there is a compliance with the orders of an authority that results in a positive outcome
133
What is destructive obedience?
when there is a compliance with the orders of an authority that results in a negative outcome
134
What are the positive influences of television and movies?
-increases general knowledge
- enhances information processing skills
- teaches children positive concepts
135
What are negative influences of television and movies?
- unrealistic views
- violence
136
What are the positive influences of video games?
- educational
- develops fine motor skills
137
What are the negative influences of video games?
- violence
- addiction
- controlling behaviour
138
What are the positive influences of social media?
-access to new and current information
139
What are the negative influences of social media?
addictive
unrealistic
140
What are the positive influences of advertising?
helpful information to help protect/reduce harm
141
What are the negative influences of advertising?
misleading
142
What is social connection?
the network of people available to someone for support and engagement
143
What is FOMO?
fear of missing out
144
How does FOMO affect our social connections?
increases our desire to stay connected which can be taxing on our mental health
145
What is JOMO?
Joy of missing out
146
How does JOMO affect social connections?
focuses on finding comfort in what you are already doing and not worry about what you are missing out on
147
What is social comparison?
the natural tendency for humans to look to those around them to either evaluate their situation, own ability or self worth
148
What is independence?
being free from the control or influence of others
149
What is anticomformity?
the active resistance to expectations for an individual's behaviour accompanied by the purposeful expression of attitude and behaviours that challenge these social norms
150
What are the 4 factors that influence anticonformity?
RAID
- reactance
- ally effect
- individuation
- desire for change
151
What is desire for change in terms of anticonformity?
when people hold the belief that something is unfair, unethical or incorrect it can encourage individuals to bring about change
152
What is reactance?
a state of distress or resistance caused by desire to regain personal freedom
153
What is individuation?
when an individual's identity and contributions to a group are noticeable
154
What is the ally affect?
the presence of an ally that doesn't accept the majority view can provide social support and strengthen anti conformity
155
What is groupthink?
a way of thinking by individual members of a group characterised by a strong tendency to seek agreement when decision making or problem solving, thus overriding any realistic consideration or alternatives
156
What 5 conditions increase the chances of groupthink?
HILUS
- high level of cohesiveness
- isolated
- lacks procedure
- under stress
- strong leader
157
What is group polarisation?
the tendency of an individual group member to shift their initially held views to a more extreme position thus the group as a whole tends to respond in more extreme ways than one would expect
158
What is deindividuation?
reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, feelings of personal responsibility and inner restraint that can occur when in a group or crowd
159
What are the 5 ethical conecpts?
Brin/j
- beneficence
- respect
- integrity
- non-maleficence
- justice
160
What is beneficence?
the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms
161
What it respect?
recognising that all individuals both human and non-human have value and importance
162
What is integrity?
commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and being honest about all information sources and results
163
What in non-maleficence?
avoiding the causes of harm and if harm is involved the benefits should outweigh the harm
164
What is justice?
there is a fair consideration that doesn't burden any particular group and that there is fair access to the benefits
165
What are the 6 ethical guidelines?
WUD CIV?
- Withdrawal rights
- Use of deception
- Debriefing
- Confidentiality
- Informed consent
- Voluntary participation
166
What are withdrawal rights?
a participant must be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time without consequences
can be after
167
What is use of deception?
deception is only used when participants knowing the true purpose may affect their behaviour
168
What is debriefing?
at the end of the experiment the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
169
What is confidentiality?
the privacy and protection of a participants personal details unless consent has been obtained
170
What is informed consent?
all participants understand the nature and purpose of experiment, including risk before agreeing to participate
171
What is voluntary participation?
there is no pressure to partake in the experiment and the participant can freely chose to be involved or not
172
Who conducted the blue eyes vs brown eyes experiment
Jane Elliot
173
What did the blue eyes vs brown eyes experiment study?
prejudice, discrimination, stereo typing ingroups and outgroups
174
Who conducted the robbers cave experiment?
Muzafer Sherif
175
What did the robbers cave experiment study?
prejudice, stereotypes, ingroups and outgroups
176
Who conducted the prison experiment?
philip zimbardo
177
What did the prison experiment study?
roles, status and power
178
Who conducted the electric shock experiment?
milgram
179
What did the electric shock experiment study?
obedience
180
What did Asch's experiments study?
group pressure and conformity
