Psych/Soc Flashcards
(350 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 Ps of socioeconomic status?
A
prestige
power
property
2
Q
What does prestige refer to in the context of socioeconomic status?
A
one’s reputation and standing in society
3
Q
What does power refer to in the context of socioeconomic status?
A
the ability to enforce one’s will on other people
4
Q
What does property refer to in the context of socioeconomic status?
A
possessions, income and other wealth
5
Q
What 3 things are often used to measure socioeconomic status?
A
education
income
occupation
6
Q
Explain accessibility vs availability in terms of health care
A
availability is the presence of resources i.e. hospitals, doctors etc in your area
accessibility is the ability of someone to obtain those existing resources i.e. can they afford it, can they get to the hospital etc
7
Q
Explain the caste system of social stratification
A
lower social mobility
less dependent on effort
social statues is defined by birth
8
Q
Explain the class system of social stratification
A
some social mobility
social status is determined by both birth and individual merit
9
Q
Explain the meritocracy system of social straification
A
higher social mobility
more dependent on effort
social status is based on individual merit
10
Q
What is social reproduction?
A
when social inequality is transmitted from one generation to the next
11
Q
What determines a person’s social mobility?
A
capital
12
Q
What are the 3 types of capital?
A
physical
cultural
social
13
Q
What is physical capital?
A
money, property, land, other physical assets
14
Q
What is cultural capital?
A
non-financial characteristics evaluated by society
15
Q
What is social capital?
A
social networks i.e. who you know
16
Q
How does functionalism view society?
A
as a complex system composed of many individual parts working together to maintain solidarity and social stability
17
Q
What level of theory is functionalism?
A
macro
18
Q
Who is Emile Durkheim?
A
he is one of the founding fathers of modern sociology
he established sociology as separate from psychology and political philosophy
he was a major proponent of functionalism
19
Q
When does dynamic equilibrium occur?
A
when multiple interdependent parts in a society work together toward social stability
20
Q
Describe some of Durkheim’s assertions regarding functionalism and society
A
- modern societies are quite complex and require many different types of people working together to make the society function
- dynamic equilibrium
- the individual is significant only in terms of his or her status, position in patterns of social relations and associated behaviours
- social structure is a network of statuses connected by associated roles
21
Q
What is a manifest function? Latent function?
A
a manifest function is the clear and open function of a social structure
a latent function is under the surface (not as obvious)
22
Q
How does conflict theory view society?
A
as a competition for limited resources
individuals and groups compete for social, political and material resources
23
Q
Name two sociologists associated with conflict theory
A
Karl Marx
Max Weber
24
Q
Describe some of Karl Marx’s assertions in conflict theory
A
- societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the manpower for production i.e. capitalism vs proletariat
- capitalism produces internal tensions which will ultimately destroy capitalist society, which will be replaced by socialism
25
Describe some of Max Weber's assertions in conflict theory
- a capitalist system does lead to conflict, but the collapse is not inevitable
- there could be more that one source of conflict i.e. inequalities in political power and social status
- there are several factors the moderate people's reaction to inequality such as agreement with authority figures, high rates of social mobility and low rates of class difference
26
Who were the founding fathers of sociology?
Durkheim
Marx
Weber
27
What level of theory is conflict theory?
macro
28
How does symbolic interactionism view society?
it analyzes the meanings that people impose on objects, events and behaviours
people behave based on what they believe is true
therefore society is socially constructed through human interpretation and it is these interpretations that form the social bond
29
Explain how symbolic interactionism holds the principal of meaning to be the central aspect of human behaviour
- humans ascribe meaning to things and act toward those things based on their ascribed meaning
- communication via language allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction with each other and society
- humans modify meanings through an interpretive thought process
30
What level of theory is symbolic interactionism?
micro
31
How does social constructionism view society?
it suggests that we actively shape our society through social interactions, social institutions and knowledge are created by individuals interacting within the system rather than having any inherent truth of their own
major focus is studying how individuals and groups participate in the construction of society and social reality
32
What is a social construct?
a concept or practice that is created by a group, essentially everyone is society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value and that is what determines its value
ie marriage
33
Is social construction dynamic?
yes
34
What level on theory is social constructionism?
micro
35
What is status?
a socially defined position or role within a society
36
What is master status?
the role or position that dominates i.e. what determines your general "place" in society
37
What is an ascribed status?
a status that is assigned to you by society regardless of your effort
38
What is an achieved status?
a status that is earned
39
What is a role?
a socially defined expectation about how you will behave based on your status
40
What is role conflict?
when two or more stases are held by an individual and there is conflict between the expectations for each i.e. you have limited time
41
What is role strain?
when you face conflicting expectations for a single role
| i.e. you're a student so you need to study but you also want to have fun
42
What is role exit?
when you transition from one role to another
43
What is a social network?
a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those which are indirect
44
What is an organization?
a large group of people with a common purpose
45
What is the major difference between a social network and an organization?
organizations tend to be more complex, impersonal and hierarchically structured
46
Name 3 types of organizations
utilitarian
normative
coercive
47
What is a utilitarian organization?
members are motivated by some incentive or reward i.e. CAA
48
What is a normative organization?
members are motivated by a common cause or belief
49
What is a coercive organization?
members have been forced to join i.e. prison
50
What is a probability distribution?
a function that assigns a probability of falling within a given range on the x-axis
51
What percentage of a normal distribution falls within 1SD of the mean? 2SD? 3SD
1 SD = 68.2%
2 SD = 95.4%
3 SD = 99.8%
52
How does percentile rank correspond to SD of a normal distribution?
-3SD is 0.1 percentile
-2SD is 2nd
-1SD is 16th
mean is 50th
+1SD is 84th
+2SD is 98th
+3SD is 99.9th
53
What needs to be true in order to draw conclusions about populations from samples?
sample needs to be large enough i.e. n=30
| samples need to be independent and random
54
When do we reject the null hypothesis for the MCAT?
when is less than 0.05
55
What does a t-test do?
uses the control sample to estimate the population parameter, then calculates the probability that the treatment group is sampled from this same population
56
What does ANOVA do?
calculates the ratio of the difference between groups divided by the difference within groups then uses the sample size and this ratio to perform a significance test
57
What is type 1 error?
false positive
| ie experiment concludes there is a difference between groups even though there isn't
58
What is type 2 error?
false negative
| ie experiment concludes there is no difference between groups even though there is
59
What is sensitivity?
there is a difference between groups and the experiment is right
60
What is specificity?
there is no difference between groups and the experiment is right
61
What is power?
the extent to which a study can detect a difference when a difference exists
62
Give a few examples of how you can maximize the difference within or between groups to increase your chances of a significant finding
between groups:
-have an effective intervention i.e. your antidepressant actually works really well
within groups:
- increase sample size
- use repeated measures on the same people
- screen people in groups so that they are as similar as possible on relevant variables
- randomly assign people to groups
63
What defines a non-experimental design?
lack of a control group i.e. case studies, surveys, observational studies etc
64
What is internal validity?
the extent to which we can say that the change in the dependent variable is due to the intervention (treatment)
65
What is external validity?
the extent to which the findings can be generalized to the real world
66
List some threats to internal validity
```
spontaneous recovery
maturation
measurement
secular shift (society changes)
history effects (i.e. natural disaster)
regression to the mean (ppl at extremes in a study move back to the mean on later tests)
instrument effects
selection effects
attrition effects (i.e. more people drop out of one group than another for some reason)
```
67
List some threats to external validity
experiment doesn't reflect the real world
selection criteria
situational effects
68
What is incidence vs prevalence?
prevalence is the # or % of people diagnosed with a disease or condition during the time window specified, while incidence is the # of NEW cases of a disease or condition that began during the time window specified
69
What is cross-sectional data?
data collected all at once i.e. a "snapshot"
70
What is longitudinal data?
repeated data collection from a group over time
71
What is personal identity?
all of the personal attributes that you consider integral to the description of who you are
72
What is social identity?
all of the socially defined attributes defining who you are
| ie age, race, gender, religion, occupation
73
What is self-concept? What is another name for it?
also called self-identity, self-construction or self-perspective
it includes all of your beliefs about who you are as an individual
74
What is a self-schema?
beliefs and ideas that we have about ourselves that we use to guide and organize the processing of information that is relevant to ourselves
75
What is learned helplessness?
basically you don't even try to avoid a negative stimulus any more even though it actually is escapable
76
When does learned helplessness tend to occur?
when an individual posses low self-efficacy and an external locus of control
77
What is self-efficacy?
our belief in our abilities, competence and effectiveness
78
What is a locus of control?
our belief in whether or not we can influence the events that impact us
79
What is self-consciousness?
awareness of one's self
80
What is self-esteem?
beliefs about one's self-worth
81
What does the Attribution Theory explain?
how we understand our own behaviour and the behaviour of others
82
According to Attribution Theory, given a set of circumstances, we tend to attribute behaviour to what?
dispositional attribution (internal causes) or situational attribution (external causes)
83
What 3 factors determine whether we attribute behaviour to internal or external causes?
distinctiveness
consensus
consistency
84
Explain distinctiveness in terms of Attribution Theory
the extent to which the individual behaves in the same way in similar situations
85
Explain consensus in terms of Attribution Theory
the extent to which the individual is behaving similarly to other individuals
86
Explain consistency in terms of Attribution Theory
the extent to which the individual's behaviour is similar every time this situation occurs
87
What is the fundamental attribution error?
we attribute another person's behaviour to their personality
88
What is actor/observer bias?
we attribute our own actions to the situation
89
What is self-serving bias?
we attribute our successes to ourselves, but our failures to others
90
What is optimism bias?
we believe that bad things happen to other people, but not to ourselves
91
What is the just world belief?
we believe that bad things happen to others because of their own actions
92
What is the social facilitation effect?
when the presence of others improves our performance
| this tends to only occur with simple, well-ingrained tasks
93
What is deindividualization?
in situations where there is a high degree of arousal and a low degree of personal responsibility, people may lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a mob mentality
94
What is the bystander effect?
we are less likely to help a victim when other people are present because everyone feels a diffusion of responsibility
95
What was study in the case of Kitty Genovese?
the bystander effect
96
What is social loafing?
when working in a group each person has a tendency to exert less individual effort than if they were working independently
97
What is groupthink?
when the desire for harmony or conformity in a group of people results in members attempting to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints
98
When is groupthink most likely to occur?
- the group is overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance
- the group justifies its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents
- dissenting opinions, information and/or facts are prevented from permeating the group (mind guarding)
- individuals feel pressured to conform and censor their own opinions in favour of consensus (creates an illusion of unanimity)
99
What is mind guarding?
the process by which dissenting opinions, information and/or facts are prevented from permeating a group
100
What is group polarization?
when groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members i.e. the average view of a member is accentuated
101
What is conformity?
when you adjust your behaviour or thinking based on the thinking of others
102
What were Solomon Asch's experiments about?
conformity
| they were the experiments comparing the sizes of lines
103
What is obedience?
when you yield to explicit instructions or orders from an authority
104
What were Stanley Milgram's experiments about?
obedience
| they were the experiments with a teacher shocking a learner
105
What is deviance?
a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations
106
What is social stigma?
the extreme disapproval of a person or a group on socially characteristic grounds that distinguish them from other members of a society
107
What is impression management?
conscious or unconscious process whereby we attempt to manage our own image by influencing the perceptions of others
108
Where does the dramaturgical perspective stem from?
the theory of symbolic interactionism
109
What is the dramaturgical perspective?
we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others, we base our presentations of cultural values, norms and expectations with the ultimate goal of presenting an acceptable self to others
we have a front and backstage self
110
What is persuasion?
a powerful way to influence what others think and do
111
What are the three key elements of persuasion?
message characteristics
source characteristics
target characteristics
112
What are message characteristics?
the features of a message itself
| i.e. the logic and key points, length and grammatical complexity
113
What are source characteristics?
characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message
ie expertise, knowledge, trustworthiness, attractiveness
114
What are target characteristics?
characteristics of the person receiving the message
| i.e. self-esteem, intelligence, mood
115
What does the Elaboration-Likelihood Model propose?
that there are two cognitive routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route
116
What is the central route of persuasion? What kind of outcome does it lead to?
when people are persuaded by the content of the argument itself
leads to a lasting change that resists fading and counter attacks
117
What is the peripheral route of persuasion? What kind of outcome does it lead to?
when people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the message
leads to a temporary change that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks
118
When is the audience more likely to use the central processing route?
when they have high motivation and ability to think about the message
119
When is the audience more likely to use the peripheral processing route?
when they have low motivation ability to think about the message
120
What experiments did Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow do?
experiments on monkeys, testing attachment to others
found that they were attached to their mothers for comfort
(originally was thought that it was only for food)
121
What experiments did Mary Ainsworth do?
"strange situation experiments" about different attachment styles of infants
122
What are the 2 types of attachment styles of infants that Mary Ainsworth discovered?
securely attached and insecurely attached
123
Describe securely attached infants
will happily explore in the presence of their mothers, cry when mother leaves, are quickly consoled when she returns
124
Describe insecurely attached infants
will not explore their surroundings while their mother is present, when mother leaves they will either cry loudly and stay upset or will be indifferent to her departure and return
125
What is personality?
our thoughts, feelings, ways of thinking about things, beliefs and behaviours
126
What are the big five traits used to describe personality?
```
openness
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
```
127
Who developed the psychoanalytic perspective of personality?
Sigmund Freud
128
What is the psychoanalytic perspective of personality?
theory that asserts that personality is shaped largely by the unconscious
129
What two things did Freud suggest that human behaviour is motivated by?
libido (life instinct)
| death instinct
130
What is libido?
life instinct
| drives behaviours focused on pleasure, survive; and avoidance of pain
131
What is the death instinct?
drives behaviours fueled by the unconscious desire to die or hurt oneself or others
132
What 3 components did Freud propose the human psyche could be divided into?
id
ego
superego
133
Describe the id
largely unconscious
| responsible for our drives to avoid pain and seek pleasure
134
Describe the superego
responsible for our moral judgments of right and wrong
| strives for perfection
135
Describe the ego
responsible for our logical thinking and planning
136
How many stages are there in Freud's psychosexual stages of development?
5
137
Describe Freud's first stage of psychosexual development
```
oral stage
0 to 1
erogenous zones is the mouth i.e. sucking, chewing, biting
Adult fixation examples:
-orally aggressive (verbally abusive)
-orally passive i.e. smoking overeating
```
138
Describe Freud's second stage of psychosexual development
```
anal stage
1 to 3
erogenous zone is the anus i.e. bowel and bladder control
Adult fixation examples:
-anal retentive, overly neat/tidy
-anal expulsive, disorganized
```
139
Describe Freud's third stage of psychosexual development
```
phallic stage
3 to 6
erogenous zone is the genitals
Adult fixation examples:
-Oedipus complex (males)
-Electra complex (females)
```
140
Describe Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development
latency
6 to 12
no erogenous zone, sexual feelings are dormant
no adult fixation
141
Describe Freud's fifth stage of psychosexual development
```
genital
12+
sexual interests mature
Adult fixation examples:
-frigidity
-impotence
-difficulty in intimate relationships
```
142
How many stages are in Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages of development?
8
143
What is Erik Erikson's first stage of psychosocial development?
trust vs mistrust
infancy
trust: infant's needs are met
mistrust: infant's needs are not met
144
What is Erikson's second stage of psychosocial development?
autonomy vs shame
early childhood
autonomy: children learn self-control
shame: children remain dependent
145
What is Erikson's third stage of psychosocial development?
initiative vs guilt
preschool age
initiative: children achieve purpose
guilt: children thwarted in efforts
146
What is Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development?
industry vs inferiority
school age
industry: children gain competence
inferiority: children feel incompetent
147
What is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development?
identity vs role confusion
adolescence
identity: adolescents learn sense of self
role confusion: adolescents lack own identity
148
What is Erkison's sixth stage of psychosocial development?
intimacy vs isolation
young adulthood
intimacy: YAs develop mature relationships
isolation: YAs unable to create social ties
149
What is Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development?
generativity vs stagnation
middle age
generativity: adults contribute to others/society
stagnation: adults feel life is meaningless
150
What is Erikson's eighth stage of psychosocial development?
integrity vs despair
later life
integrity: adults develop wisdom
despair: adults feel unaccomplished
151
Which of Erikson's stages of development corresponds to Freud's oral stage?
trust vs mistrust
152
Which perspective is Erik Erikson?
psychoanalytic
153
Which of Erikson's stages corresponds to Freud's anal stage?
autonomy vs shame
154
Which of Erikson's stages corresponds to Freud's phallic stage?
initiative vs guilt
155
Which of Erikson's stages corresponds to Freud's latency stage?
industry vs inferiority
156
Which of Erikson's stages corresponds to Freud's genital stage?
identity vs role confusion
157
Who was the founding father of behaviourism?
BF Skinner
158
What is the behaviourist perspective of personality?
- personality is a result of learned behaviour patterns based on our environment
- does not take internal thoughts and feelings into account
- is deterministic
- the development of a person occurs through classical and operant conditioning
159
What is meant by the behaviourist perspective of personality being deterministic?
people begin as blank slates and environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behaviour and personalities
160
What is the social cognitive perspective of personality?
- personality is a result of reciprocal interactions among behavioural, cognitive and environmental factors
- emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influence and cognitive processes
161
Who is most associated with social learning or observational (vicarious) learning?
Albert Bandura
162
What is the behavioural component of social cognitive theory?
behavioural component includes patterns of classical and operant conditioning AND observational learning
163
What is the cognitive component of social cognitive theory?
includes the mental processes involved in observational learning and conscious cognitive processes such as self-efficacy beliefs
164
What is the environmental component of social cognitive theory?
includes situational influences, such as opportunities, rewards, and punishments
165
What were Albert Bandura's experiments?
observational learning using the Bobo doll
166
Who developed the humanist perspective of personality?
Carl Rogers
167
What is the humanist perspective of personality?
humans are driven by an actualizing tendency to realize their own highest potential and personality conflicts arise when this is somehow thwarted
168
How did Rogers describe human development?
- as progressing from undifferentiated to differentiated
- development of self-concept was the the main goal
- self-concept was influenced by unconditional and conditional positive regard
- those raised with unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to achieve self-actualization
- those raised with conditional positive regard feel worthy only when they've met certain conditions
- the ideal self is an impossible standard we can never reach
- when the real self and ideal self are incongruent it can cause psychopathy
169
What is motivation?
the driving force that causes us to act or behave in certain ways
170
Name 4 factors that influence motivation
instincts
drives
needs
arousal
171
What is drive-reduction theory?
suggests that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behaviour
172
What did Abraham Maslow create?
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
173
Name the components of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs from bottom to top
```
physiological needs
safety needs
love and belonging
esteem needs
self-actualization
```
174
What is a psychological disorder?
a set of behavioural and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational or personal functioning
175
Name 5 anxiety disorders
```
generalized anxiety disorder
phobias
panic disorder
obsessive-compulsive disorder
post-traumatic stress disorder
```
176
What are the general characteristics of anxiety disorders?
excessive worry
uneasiness
apprehension
fear with both physiological and psychological symptoms
177
Name 4 mood disorders
major depressive disorder
dysthymic disorder
bipolar disorder
cyclothymic disorder
178
Name 3 cluster A personality disorders
paranoid personality disorder
schizoid personality disorder
schizotypal personality disorder
179
Name 4 cluster B personality disorders
antisocial personality disorder
borderline personality disorder
histronic personality disorder
narcissistic personality disorder
180
Name 3 cluster C personality disorders
avoidant personality disorder
dependent personality disorder
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder disorder
181
What are the general characteristics of mood disorders?
disturbance in mood or affect
| presence or absence of a manic or hypomanic episode (this is what distinguishes categories)
182
What are the general characteristics of personality disorders?
enduring maladaptive patterns of behaviour and cognition that depart from social norms and are displayed across a variety of contexts, which develop early and cause significant dysfunction and distress
183
Name 2 psychotic disorders
schizophrenia
| delusional disorder
184
What are the general characteristics of psychotic disorders?
a general loss of contact with reality, which can include delusions, hallucinations, and psychosis
185
Name 3 dissociative disorders
dissociative identity disorder
dissociative amnesia
depersonalization disorder
186
What are the general characteristics of dissociative disorders?
disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception
| may be caused by psychological trauma
187
Name 4 eating disorders
anorexia nervosa
bulimia nervosa
binge-eating disorder
pica
188
What are the general characteristics of eating disorders?
disruptive eating patterns that negatively impact physical and mental health
189
Name 4 neurocognitive disorders
Alzheimer's disease
delirium
dementia
amnesia
190
What are the general characteristics of neurocognitive disorders?
cognitive decline in memory, problem-solving and perception
191
Name 3 sleep disorders
insomnia
narcolepsy
sleepwalking
192
Name 5 somatoform disorders
```
conversion disorder
somatization disorder
hypochondriasis
body dysmorphic disorder
pain disorder
```
193
What are the general characteristics of somatoform disorders?
symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or substance use and are not attributable to another mental disorder
194
When does non-associative learning occur?
when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a given stimulus
195
What is habituation?
becoming accustomed to a stimulus
196
What is dishabituation?
when a stimulus is removed after an organism has become habituated to it
197
What is sensitization?
when an organism has increased responsiveness to a repeated stimulus
198
What is desensitization?
when an organism has a diminished response to a stimulus to which sensitization has occurred
199
Who was the first to describe classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
200
Using Pavlov's dogs as an example of classical conditioning identify the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus and response
food = unconditioned stimulus
salivating = unconditioned response
bell ringing = conditioned stimulus
salivating = conditioned response
201
What is generalization?
when stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response
202
What is discrimination (in classical conditioning)?
when the conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other stimuli and is the only thing to elicit the conditioned response
203
What is operant conditioning?
a process in which reinforcement and punishment are used to mild behaviour responses
204
Who is the most associated with operant conditioning and what type of experiments did he do?
BF Skinner
| he did experiments with rats in boxes with levers for food and electric shocks
205
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcements and punishments?
primary are things like food, sleep, water etc that you need to survive
secondary are other things ie tokens for prizes or good/bad grades
206
What is the difference between negative and positive punishments and reinforcements?
positive add something to the situation
| negative take something away
207
What is the difference between ratio and interval reinforcement schedules?
ratio schedules give reinforcement after a certain number of times the wanted action occurs
interval give reinforcement after a certain amount of time
(both can be fixed or variable)
208
What type of reinforcement schedule is the most resistant to extinction?
variable ratio (VR=variable ratio=very resistant)
209
What is observational learning? Who identified it and what kind of experiments did he do?
Albert Bandura
did experiments with the Bobo doll
it is learning through the observation of another's behaviour
210
What is insight learning?
a process in which the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in "a flash of insight"
211
Who first demonstrated insight learning and how did he do it?
Wolfgang Kohler
| did studies with chimps where he placed food out of reach
212
What is latent learning?
a process in which learning is occurring but it is not immediately obvious, later when needed the learning demonstrates itself
213
What experiments were first use to demonstrate latent learning?
experiments involving rats in mazes looking for food
214
What are the serial position effects of memory?
```
primacy effect (remember first words)
recency effect (remember the last words)
```
215
What is encoding with respect to memory?
it is the transfer of sensory memory into our memory system
| may involves the coding/processing of information to be stored
216
Name 7 encoding strategies
```
rehearsal
organization
semantic (putting in a meaningful context)
chunking
dual-encoding (encoding via >1 stimuli)
mnemonics
self-reference
```
217
What are the 3 components of memory in the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory?
sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory
218
In the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory how do you get from sensory memory to short-term memory?
attention
219
During which stages in the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory can you lose information?
all 3
220
How is info kept in the short-term memory stage?
maintenance rehearsal
221
How does info go from short-term memory to long-term memory? How does it go the opposite way?
short-term to long term is encoding
| long-term to short-term is retrieval
222
Describe sensory memory in the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
```
contains iconic (visual) and acoustic/echoic memory
decays quickly
```
223
How long does iconic memory last?
less than a second
224
How long does echoic memory last?
2-4 seconds
225
Describe short-term member in the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
has a rehearsal buffer w capacity of ~7 (+/- 2)
decays in 15-30 sec
encoding into STM is primarily acoustic
226
Describe long-term memory in the Multi-Store Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
permanent storage
unlimited capacity
ecoding into LTM is primarily semantic (meaning-making)
227
What are the 2 large components of long term memory?
explicit/declarative memory
| implicit/non declarative
228
What is explicit memory?
also called declarative memory
| it is memory with conscious recall
229
What is implicit memory?
also called non declarative memory
| it is memory without conscious recall
230
What is procedural memory?
a type of implicit memory
| learning motor skills, physical actions etc
231
What are the two types of explicit long-term memory?
episodic and semantic memory
232
What is episodic memory?
events you have personally experienced
233
What is procedural memory?
your general knowledge of facts and information
234
How can you forget from sensory memory?
decay
235
How can you forget from short-term memory?
decay
| displacement
236
How can you forget from long-term memory?
decay
interference
retrieval failure
237
What is displacement with respect to short-term memory?
when new often relevant information in the rehearsal buffer is substituted for the actual information
238
Name 4 types of retrieval
free recall
cued recall
recognition
relearning
239
What is interference?
when competing material makes it more difficult to encode or retrieve information
240
What are the two types of interference?
proactive and retroactive interference
241
Describe proactive interference
information that has already been learned interferes with the ability to learn new information
242
Describe retroactive interference
new information that has already been learned makes it more difficult to retrieve older information
243
What are source monitoring errors?
source amnesia, forgetting who told you something etc
244
What are false memories?
creation of memory that never existed
245
What is anterograde amnesia?
inability to form new memories
246
What is retrograde amnesia?
inability to retrieve or the loss of stored memories
247
What part of the brain is involved a lot in memory?
hippocampus
248
What is attitude?
our evaluation, on a scale from positive to negative of other people, events etc
formed from our past and present experiences
measurable and mutable
impact our behaviours and emotions
249
What are the 3 components of attitude?
affect (our feelings)
behaviour (our internal and external responses)
cognition (our thoughts and beliefs)
250
Give 4 situations in which attitude better predicts behaviour
social influences are reduced
general patterns of behaviour are observed (not specific)
specific attitudes are considered (rather than general)
self-reflection occurs
251
What is the principle of aggregation?
attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behaviour, but not necessarily each isolated act
252
Give 3 situations in which behaviours are more likely to influence attitude
role-playing
public declarations
justification of effort
253
What was Zimbardo's prison experiment an example of?
behaviours influencing attitude
254
Who's theory was cognitive dissonance?
Leon Festinger
255
What is cognitive dissonance?
when our attitudes and behaviours don't match we feel tension/dissonance and so we make our views match what we've done to reduce the tension
256
What is consciousness?
the awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states and the environment
is important for reflection and directs our attention
257
What controls alertness and arousal in the brain?
the reticular activating system (RAS)
258
What are the three physiological indicators of a mammal's circadian rhythm?
melatonin released by the pineal gland
body temperature
serum cortisol levels
259
Name 3 dyssomnias
insomnia
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
260
What are dyssomnias?
abnormalities in the amount, quality or timing of sleep
261
What is insomnia?
inability to remain asleep
| can stem from chronic stress
262
What is narcolepsy?
periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 minutes
263
What is sleep apnea?
intermittent cessation of breathing during sleep which results in awakening after a minute or two without air
can repeat hundreds of times a night and deprive sufferers of deep sleep
264
What are parasomnias? Name 2
abnormal behaviours that occur during sleep
| somnambulism and night terrors
265
What is sommniabulism?
sleep-walking
| usually occurs during slow wave sleep (stage 3) and during the first third of the night
266
What are night terrors?
usually occur during stage 3 sleep (vs nightmares which come at halloween)
don't remember in the morning
267
What type of waves does your brain emit when you're awake?
beta
268
What kind of waves does your brain emit when you're drowsy?
alpha
269
How much of your total sleep in a night is REM?
about 25%
270
Are the different stages of sleep spaced evenly throughout the night?
no
deep sleep is front-loaded, REM and light sleep are back-loaded
there is no REM in the first 90-minute cycle
271
How long is a sleep cycle?
about minutes
272
Give the stages of sleep in order that they occurs
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1
273
Is there REM in the 1st 90 minute sleep cycle?
no
274
When does stage 4 of sleep drop out? Stage 3?
stage 4 drops out after 2 cycles
| stage 3 after 3
275
Describe stage 1 of sleep
```
light
theta waves
slow rolling eye movements
moderate activity
fleeting thoughts
```
276
Describe stage 2 of sleep
```
light
sleep spindle and k-complex
no eye movement
moderate activity
increased relaxation
decreased temp, HR and respiration
```
277
Describe stages 3 and 4 of sleep
```
deep
delta waves
no eye movement
moderate activity
heart and digestion slow
growth hormones secreted (from pituitary)
```
278
Describe REM sleep
```
light
similar to beta waves but more jagged
when most dreams occur
bursts of quick eye movements
almost no activity - paradoxical sleep
```
279
What is REM rebound?
after not getting enough REM your body will make up for it in subsequent nights
280
Give 3 examples of depressants
alcohol
barbiturates
opiates
281
What is the mechanism of action of depressants?
depress the central nervous system
| especially the fight or flight reflex
282
What are some effects of depressants?
impaired motor control
eventual addiction
overdoses can lead to death
283
Give 4 examples of stimulants
caffeine
nicotine
amphetamines
cocaine
284
What is the mechanism of action of stimulants?
increases release or inhibits reuptake of neurotransmitters (or both)
285
What are some effects of stimulants?
speed up body functions i.e. breathing, heart etc
pupil dilation
rush/high followed by a crash
286
Name 2 types of hallucinogens
LSD
| marijuana (THC)
287
What is the mechanism of action of hallucinogens?
distorts perceptions in the absence of sensory input
288
What are some effects of hallucinogens?
hallucinations
impaired judgement
slowed reaction time
289
What determines physical vs psychological dependance?
withdrawal symptoms
290
How is addiction defined?
as compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences
characterized by am inability to stop using the drug, failure to meet work, social or family obligations and sometimes tolerance and withdrawal
291
What are the 3 components of emotion?
physiological
behavioural
cognitive
292
What are the universal emotions? Who expresses them?
```
happiness
sadness
surprise
fear
disgust
anger
they are expressed by all normally developing or developed humans across all cultures
```
293
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
for non-complex tasks a high level of arousal is okay, for complex tasks lower levels of arousal are better
294
Explain the James-Lange theory of emotion
"common sense view"
emotion inducing stimulus
gives physiological AND behavioural response which leads to cognitive interpretation and then labelling of emotion
295
Explain the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
emotion inducing stimulus
gives physiological response and cognitive interpretation at the same time
leads to behavioural response and the labelling of the emotion
296
Explain the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
also called the two-factor cognitive theory
emotion inducing stimulus
gives physiological response
which leads to cognitive interpretation
and then gives behavioural response and labelling of emotion
297
Name the parts of the limbic system
```
thalamus
hypothalamus
frontal lobe
olfactory bulb
amygdala
hippocampus
```
298
What is the role of the thalamus in the limbic system?
relay station for 4 of the senses (not smell)
299
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the limbic system?
motivated behaviours ie hunger, thirst, sex drive
300
What is the role of the frontal lobe in the limbic system?
executive function and control of emotion
301
What is the role of the olfactory bulb in the limbic system?
smell
302
What is the role of amygdala in the limbic system?
fear
303
What is the role of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
memory consolidation
304
What is our physiological response to acute stress? Chronic stress?
```
acute = SNS (then PNS)
chronic = cortisol
```
305
What is Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome?
alarm > resistance > exhaustion (resulting in sickness)
306
Name 3 types of stressors
catastrophes
significant life changes
daily hassles
307
What are catastrophes?
unpredictable, large-scale events that include natural disasters and wartime events and affect many people
308
Can positive significant life changes cause stress?
yes
309
What is absolute threshold?
the lowest level of a stimulus we can detect 50% of the time
310
What is a difference threshold?
the minimum difference between two stimuli we can detect 50% of the time
also called the just noticeable difference
311
What is Weber's law?
human responses to physiological stimuli are generally proportional to a constant magnitude for a given sensory stimulus
different sensory stimuli and different discriminatory tasks have different difference thresholds
we are more accurate at detecting change when the initial intensity of the stimulus us weak, rather than strong
312
What is signal detection theory? What are the 4 possible outcomes?
proposes a method for quantifying a person's ability to detect a given stimulus amongst other, non-important stimuli
outcomes: hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
313
What is required to detect a stimulus according to signal detection theory?
acquisition of information
| application of criteria
314
What does accuracy of detecting a stimulus rely on according to signal detection theory?
external noise
| internal noise
315
What does a receiver operating characteristic curve graph? What does it demonstrate?
displays hit rate vs false alarm rate
| area under the graph is the person's accuracy
316
What kind of processing does Gestalt Psychology focus on?
top-down processing
317
Name 2 key Gestalt principles and any laws within them
```
figure and ground
grouping:
law of proximity
law of similarity (i.e. colour)
law of continuity (i.e. sin wave vs semi-circles)
law of connectedness
law of closure (closing shapes)
```
318
What is the very broad definition of cognition?
how we process information i.e. receiving, storing, thought processes for language etc
basically everything
319
What is Baddeley's Model of Working Memory?
an explanation of how our 3 short-term sensory stores interact with the central executive, which controls the flow of info to and from the sensory stores
320
What are the 3 short-term sensory stores in Baddeley's model of working memory? Where do they each lead to?
phonological loop to semantic verbal memory
visuospatial sketchpad to semantic visual memory
episodic buffer to episodic memory
321
What does the central executive do?
coordination of the slave systems
shifting between tasks or retrieval strategies
selective attention and inhibition
322
What are the two possibilities for new information and integration into our schemas?
assimilate- interpret new info based on our current schemas
| accommodate- incorporate new info and experiences into our schemas
323
What did Jean Piaget contribute to psychology?
his 4 stages of cognitive development
324
Describe Piaget's first stage of cognitive development
```
Sensorimotor
0-1.5/2
child experiences the world directly through senses and motor movement
child learns object permanence
child has stranger anxiety
```
325
Describe Piaget's second stage of cognitive development
```
Preoperational
2-6/7
child can represent things with words and images, but uses intuitive, not logical, reasoning
like to pretend play a lot
egocentrism
```
326
Describe Piaget's third stage of cognitive development
Concrete Operational
7-11
child thinks logically and performs simple mental manipulations with concrete concepts
learn conservation
327
Describe Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development
```
Formal Operational
12-adult
person can reason abstractly, solve hypothetical problems, deduce consequences etc
ie have abstract logic
also learn moral reasoning
```
328
What is an algorithm?
a step-by-step procedure that exhausts all possible options but guarantees a solution
329
What is a heuristic?
a mental rule-of-thumb, shortcut or guideline that can be applied to problem solving
330
What is confirmation bias?
when we seek evidence to support our conclusion or ideas more than we seek evidence that will refute them
also occurs when we interpret neutral or ambiguous evidence as supporting our beliefs
331
What is fixation?
when we have structured a problem in our mind a certain way, even if that way is ineffective, and then are unable to restructure it
332
What is a mental set?
our tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked for us in the past
333
What is functional fixedness?
a mental bias that limits our perspective for how an object can be used based on how that object is traditionally used
334
What is the availability heuristic?
when we rely on immediate examples that come to mind when trying to make a decision or judgment
i.e. you overestimate the likelihood of something happening because you can think of examples of it
335
What is the representativeness heuristic?
when we estimate the likelihood of an event y comparing it to an existing prototype (kind of like a stereotype) in our minds
336
What is a prototype?
what we think is the most relevant or typical example of a particular event or object
337
What is the behaviourist model of language acquisition?
infants are trained to learn language through operant conditioning
338
Who is Noam Chomsky?
linguist that proposed Universal Grammar/Language Acquisition Device
339
WHat is Universal Grammar? What is another name for it?
humans are born with an innate ability to learn language
all normally-developing humans learn language when exposed to it
there are critical periods
also called Language Acquisition Device
(proposed by Noam Chomsky)
340
What are the functions of the frontal lobe of the brain?
decision-making
executive management
regulation of emotion
341
What does the parietal lobe do?
touch sensations
| space is allotted based on sensitivity
342
What does the occipital lobe do?
vision
343
What does the cerebellum deal with?
physical activity
344
What does the temporal lobe deal with?
hearing
345
Where is Broca's Area?
inferior frontal gyrus of dominant hemisphere (usually left)
346
What is Broca's Area associated with?
language production
347
What happens if someone's Broca's Area is damaged?
non-fluent aphasia with intact comprehension
| i.e. they know what you're saying but they don't have fluent speech
348
Where is Wernicke's Area?
posterior superior temporal gyrus
349
What is Wernicke's Area associated with?
understanding written and spoken language
350
What happens if someone has damage to Wernicke's Area?
fluent aphasia with impaired comprehension
| i.e. they talk and the grammatical structure makes sense but the actual sentences make no sense at all
